Administration, Economy and Society under Sultanate and Mughal Rule

This section delves into the administrative structures, economic systems, and societal norms that characterized the Delhi Sultanate and the Mughal Empire. Understanding these aspects is crucial for grasping the evolution of governance, trade, agriculture, and social stratification in medieval India.

The Delhi Sultanate (1206-1526 CE)

1. Administration of the Delhi Sultanate

The administrative system of the Delhi Sultanate was a complex blend of Turko-Persian traditions and local Indian practices. The Sultan was the central figure, holding absolute political and military authority. The administration was hierarchical, with various departments and officials responsible for different aspects of governance.

a. Central Administration

The Sultan was assisted by a council of ministers, the most important of whom was the Wazir, who acted as the chief advisor and often managed the revenue and finances of the state. Other key officials included:

• Naib: Deputy to the Sultan, sometimes holding extensive powers.
• Diwan-i-Wizarat: The finance department, headed by the Wazir, responsible for revenue collection, expenditure, and auditing accounts.
• Diwan-i-Arz: The military department, responsible for the recruitment, training, and maintenance of the army. The head of this department was the Ariz-i-Mamalik.
• Diwan-i-Insha: The secretariat, responsible for drafting royal decrees and official correspondence.
• Diwan-i-Rasalat: The department of foreign affairs and religious matters, often headed by the Sadr-us-Sudur.
• Diwan-i-Qaza: The judicial department, headed by the chief Qazi, who was also the head of the judiciary in the capital.
• Barid-i-Mamalik: The chief intelligence officer, responsible for the news network across the empire.

b. Provincial and Local Administration

The Sultanate was divided into large provinces called Iqtas, which were assigned to powerful nobles (Muqtis or Walis) who were responsible for maintaining law and order, collecting revenue, and administering justice within their territories. These Iqtas were further subdivided into smaller administrative units like Shiqs, Paraganas, and Grams (villages).

• Shiqdar: Head of a Shiq, responsible for law and order and military matters.
• Amil: Revenue collector in a Paragana.
• Muzari: Peasants or cultivators.
• Village Panchayats: Continued to play a significant role in local administration and dispute resolution.

c. Judicial System

The judicial system was based on Islamic law (Sharia) for Muslims and local customs for Hindus. The Sultan was the highest judicial authority. The Qazis handled civil and criminal cases, assisted by the Muftis who interpreted the law. The village panchayats and local elders often resolved minor disputes.

2. Economy of the Delhi Sultanate

The economy was primarily agrarian, but trade and commerce also played a significant role. The state's revenue was largely derived from land revenue, taxes, and tribute.

a. Agriculture

Agriculture was the backbone of the economy. Land was divided into Khalsa (land directly under the Sultan's control) and Iqta land (assigned to nobles). The state encouraged the cultivation of new lands and introduced new crops like sugarcane, lentils, and wheat. Land revenue was collected in kind or cash, usually a proportion of the produce (often one-third to one-half).

b. Revenue System

The Wazir managed the revenue department. The primary source of income was land revenue. Other taxes included:

• Jaziya: A poll tax on non-Muslims.
• Zakat: A religious tax on Muslims.
• Kharaj: A land tax.
• Usr: A tax on land cultivated by Muslims.
• Gharai: House tax.
• Charai: Pasture tax.

Alauddin Khalji introduced important reforms, including the measurement of land for assessment and the collection of revenue in cash. Muhammad bin Tughlaq attempted to introduce a token currency and a direct tax on agriculture in the Doab, which led to widespread discontent.

c. Trade and Commerce

Trade flourished under the Sultanate, both internal and external. Major trading centers included Delhi, Multan, Lakhnauti, and Daulatabad. The state maintained roads and provided security for merchants. There was a significant trade in textiles, horses, spices, and luxury goods. The Sultanate also minted coins in gold (Tanka), silver (Jital), and copper.

d. Crafts and Industries

Various crafts and industries developed, including textile production (cotton, silk, wool), metalwork, pottery, leather goods, and paper manufacturing. The state often patronized artisans and established royal workshops (Karkhanas).

3. Society of the Delhi Sultanate

Sultanate society was hierarchical and stratified, with significant differences between the ruling elite and the common populace. It was also a period of cultural synthesis, where Islamic and Indian traditions interacted.

a. Social Structure

The society was broadly divided into:

• The Ruling Elite: Comprised of the Sultan, his family, nobles (Amirs), Ulema (religious scholars), and military officials. This group enjoyed wealth and privileges.
• The Middle Class: Included merchants, artisans, and skilled workers.
• The Peasantry: The vast majority of the population, engaged in agriculture. They were often burdened by taxes and had limited social mobility.
• Slaves: A significant number of slaves were employed in domestic service and military roles.

b. Role of Ulema and Sufis

The Ulema, the body of Islamic theologians and jurists, held considerable influence in the administration and judicial matters. Sufi saints, on the other hand, played a vital role in spreading Islam among the masses and fostering a syncretic culture. They often worked outside the formal administration, interacting directly with the common people.

c. Position of Women

The position of women varied. While elite women might have enjoyed some privileges, the general status of women was subordinate. Practices like Purdah (veiling) and Sati (widow immolation) were prevalent among certain communities.

d. Religious and Cultural Life

The Sultanate period witnessed the interaction and sometimes conflict between Islam and Hinduism. While the ruling class was Muslim, the majority population was Hindu. Despite religious differences, there was a degree of cultural exchange, leading to the development of new art forms, architecture, and literature. The Bhakti and Sufi movements contributed to a more tolerant religious atmosphere.

The Mughal Empire (1526-1857 CE)

1. Administration of the Mughal Empire

The Mughal administration was a highly centralized and sophisticated system, which evolved over centuries. It was characterized by a strong bureaucracy, an efficient revenue system, and a well-organized military.

a. Central Administration

The Emperor was the head of the state and the government, possessing absolute power. He was assisted by a council of ministers, the most important of whom was the Vakil (during Akbar's early reign, later diminished in importance) and the Wazir (chief minister, also called Diwan-i-Ala).

Key departments and officials included:

• Diwan-i-Ala (Wazir): Head of the finance department, responsible for revenue, expenditure, and treasury. He supervised the provincial Diwans.
• Mir Bakshi: Head of the military department, responsible for recruitment, organization of the army, and payment of salaries. He also supervised the intelligence department.
• Khan-i-Saman (Mir Bakshi): Head of the royal household, responsible for the management of the royal Karkhanas, stores, and expenditure.
• Qazi-ul-Quzzat: Chief Justice, responsible for the administration of Islamic law.
• Sadr-us-Sudur: Head of the religious and charitable grants department, responsible for endowments and justice in religious matters.
• Muhtasib: Censor of public morals, responsible for enforcing Islamic law and public decency.
• Darogha-i-Dak Chauki: Head of the postal and intelligence department.

The Mansabdari system, introduced by Akbar, was a crucial element of Mughal administration. It was a ranking system for officials, which determined their salary, military obligations, and status. Mansabdars were granted land (Jagirs) in lieu of cash salaries.

b. Provincial Administration (Subahs)

The empire was divided into provinces called Subahs, headed by Subahdars (Governors). Each Subah had a hierarchy of officials mirroring the central administration:

• Subahdar: Chief executive officer, responsible for law and order, justice, and general administration.
• Diwan: Responsible for revenue collection and finances in the province.
• Bakshi: Military paymaster and supervisor of troops in the province.
• Sadr: Religious and judicial officer.
• Qazi: Judge.
• Kotwal: Chief police officer of the city.
• Amin: Revenue officer.
• Qanungo: Keeper of land revenue records.

Subahs were further divided into Sarkars, Parganas, and finally villages.

c. Judicial System

The Emperor was the supreme judge. The Qazis administered Islamic law. The village panchayats continued to resolve local disputes. Criminal cases were dealt with by the Kotwal in cities and the Subahdar in provinces. Akbar introduced the concept of 'Sulh-i-Kul' (universal peace), a more tolerant approach to justice.

d. Military Organization

The Mughal army was a formidable force, comprising infantry, cavalry, artillery, and elephants. The Mansabdari system was directly linked to military strength, as Mansabdars were required to maintain a specified number of troops. The artillery (Topkhana) was particularly important.

2. Economy of the Mughal Empire

The Mughal economy was predominantly agrarian, but it also witnessed significant growth in trade, manufacturing, and urban centers. The state played an active role in managing the economy.

a. Agriculture

Agriculture was the main source of livelihood for the majority. The Mughals encouraged the expansion of cultivation. New crops, introduced earlier, became more widespread. The state's revenue was heavily dependent on land revenue. The introduction of the system of land measurement (like Zabti system under Akbar) and classification of land led to more systematic revenue assessment.

b. Revenue System (Land Revenue)

The revenue system was a crucial aspect of Mughal administration. Akbar's reforms under the guidance of Todar Mal were particularly significant:

• Measurement of Land: Land was carefully measured and classified based on fertility (Polaj - continuously cultivated, Parauti - fallow for one or two years, Chachar - fallow for three or four years, Banjar - uncultivated for five or more years).
• Dahsala System (Tenth Year System): Introduced in 1580, this system fixed the state's share as one-third of the average produce of the past ten years. Revenue was usually collected in cash.
• Kankut: A system of estimating the produce and then fixing the revenue share.
• Bataai/Galla Bakshi: A system of sharing the actual produce between the state and the cultivator.

The revenue system aimed at maximizing state income while ensuring the cultivators could continue farming. Jagirdars were assigned specific territories to collect revenue, but their power was checked by the Diwan.

c. Trade and Commerce

The Mughal period saw a flourishing of trade. The empire controlled vast overland routes and had access to sea trade. Major commodities traded included textiles, indigo, spices, saltpetre, opium, and agricultural products. Indian merchants were active in both domestic and international trade. The Mughals maintained a stable currency and facilitated trade through improved infrastructure and security.

• Major Trading Centers: Agra, Delhi, Lahore, Multan, Burhanpur, Ahmedabad, Masulipatnam, Surat.
• Overseas Trade: With Persia, Arabia, Southeast Asia, and Europe.

d. Crafts and Industries

The Mughal Empire was renowned for its high-quality crafts and industries. Textile production (cotton, silk, wool) was a major industry, producing fine fabrics for domestic use and export. Other industries included shipbuilding, metalwork, pottery, paper manufacturing, and armaments. The Karkhanas (royal workshops) were centers of production for luxury goods and military equipment.

3. Society of the Mughal Empire

Mughal society was a complex tapestry, influenced by diverse ethnic groups, religious beliefs, and social hierarchies. It was generally more cosmopolitan and tolerant than that of the Sultanate, especially during Akbar's reign.

a. Social Structure

The Mughal society was broadly divided into:

• The Imperial Household: The Emperor, his family, and a large number of attendants, eunuchs, and women.
• The Nobility: A diverse group comprising Mansabdars, Jagirdars, military commanders, and high officials. They were drawn from various ethnic backgrounds (Turani, Irani, Indian Muslims, Rajputs, etc.).
• The Ulema: Religious scholars and jurists.
• Merchants and Bankers: An increasingly important class, especially in urban centers.
• Peasantry: The largest segment of the population, engaged in agriculture.
• Artisans and Craftsmen: Skilled workers who produced goods for both domestic and export markets.

b. Religious Policy

The Mughal approach to religion evolved. The early Mughals were orthodox Muslims. However, Akbar introduced a policy of religious tolerance ('Sulh-i-Kul') and patronized various religions. He abolished Jaziya and pilgrimage tax, established the Ibadat Khana for religious discussions, and even attempted to propagate his own syncretic faith, Din-i-Ilahi. Later Mughals became more orthodox, leading to increased religious tensions.

c. Position of Women

Women's position varied greatly by social class. In the imperial household, women of the royal family, like Nur Jahan, wielded significant influence. Among the nobility, women were often secluded (Purdah), but some participated in cultural and political affairs. Peasant women worked alongside men in the fields.

d. Cultural and Intellectual Life

The Mughal period was a golden age for art, architecture, literature, and music. Mughal architecture, with its blend of Persian, Indian, and Central Asian styles, produced iconic structures like the Taj Mahal and the Red Fort. Mughal miniature painting reached its zenith. Literature flourished in Persian, Hindi, and other regional languages. The Mughals also contributed to advancements in astronomy, mathematics, and medicine.

e. Urbanization and Rural Life

The Mughal Empire saw the growth of large cities that served as administrative, commercial, and cultural centers. However, the vast majority of the population continued to live in villages, dependent on agriculture. The village community was the basic unit of social and economic life.

Comparison: Sultanate vs. Mughal Administration, Economy, and Society

While both the Delhi Sultanate and the Mughal Empire were Islamic-based states ruling over a predominantly non-Muslim population, there were significant differences and continuities in their administrative, economic, and social structures.

Aspect	Delhi Sultanate	Mughal Empire
Central Authority	Sultan was absolute, but faced challenges from powerful nobles (Iqtadars). Decentralized tendencies were common.	Emperor was the supreme authority, with a more centralized bureaucracy (Mansabdari system). Stronger control over provinces.
Bureaucracy	Less organized, relied heavily on military commanders. Departments were developing.	Highly organized and professional bureaucracy. Mansabdari system integrated civil and military administration.
Revenue System	Primarily based on land revenue, taxes (Jaziya, Zakat). Less systematic measurement and assessment.	More systematic land revenue administration. Land measurement, classification, and fixed shares (Dahsala system). Cash revenue collection common.
Military	Relied on large standing armies and feudal levies from Iqtadars.	Well-organized, professional army with distinct branches (cavalry, infantry, artillery). Mansabdars responsible for troop maintenance.
Economic Base	Primarily agrarian, with developing trade and crafts.	Strong agrarian base, but significant growth in trade, manufacturing, and urban centers. State patronage of industries.
Social Composition	More distinct division between ruling Muslim elite and subject Hindu population.	More diverse and cosmopolitan. Inclusion of Rajputs and other Indian groups in nobility. Policy of 'Sulh-i-Kul' fostered greater social integration.
Religious Policy	Generally orthodox, though some rulers were tolerant. Jaziya was levied.	Varied from orthodox to highly tolerant (Akbar's 'Sulh-i-Kul'). Jaziya abolished by Akbar.
Cultural Impact	Development of Indo-Islamic architecture and literature.	Flourishing of distinct Mughal art, architecture, literature, and music, blending Persian and Indian traditions.

Understanding these comparisons highlights the evolution of Indian polity and society from the early medieval period to the era of large empires. The Mughal Empire built upon many foundations laid by the Sultanate but developed a more sophisticated and centralized system that left a lasting impact on the subcontinent.