Chaucer - Prologue to the Canterbury Tales

Introduction to Geoffrey Chaucer and The Canterbury Tales

Geoffrey Chaucer (c. 1343 – 1400) is widely regarded as the "Father of English Literature" and the greatest English poet of the Middle Ages. He was a diplomat, civil servant, and courtier, which gave him a broad perspective on society. His most famous work, *The Canterbury Tales*, is a collection of stories told by a group of pilgrims on their way to the shrine of Saint Thomas Becket in Canterbury Cathedral.

The *General Prologue* serves as an introduction to this grand narrative. It sets the scene, introduces the pilgrims, and describes their social status, appearance, and character through vivid and often ironic portrayals. Written in Middle English, it provides an invaluable snapshot of 14th-century English society, its classes, professions, and moral complexities.

The Frame Narrative and Structure

*The Canterbury Tales* employs a frame narrative: a story that contains other stories. The frame is the pilgrimage itself, initiated by the Host of the Tabard Inn, Harry Bailly. He proposes that each pilgrim tell two tales on the way to Canterbury and two on the way back to pass the time. The teller of the best tale will win a free supper upon their return.

The *General Prologue* introduces thirty pilgrims (though some are debated as being more than one person, like the three priests accompanying the Plowman). The pilgrims represent a cross-section of medieval English society, from the nobility and clergy to the burgeoning middle class and peasantry.

Key Themes and Social Commentary

The *General Prologue* is rich with social commentary. Chaucer uses his keen observation to depict the corruption within the Church, the aspirations of the rising middle class, and the traditional values of the aristocracy and peasantry.

Through subtle irony and direct description, Chaucer critiques various social institutions and professions. For instance, the Prioress is more concerned with courtly manners than spiritual devotion, and the Monk is more interested in hunting and fine clothes than in his monastic duties.

The poem also explores themes of:

• Social hierarchy and mobility
• The role of women in society
• Love and marriage
• Corruption and hypocrisy
• Piety and genuine faith
• The contrast between appearance and reality

Notable Characters and Descriptions

Chaucer's genius lies in his ability to create memorable characters with just a few strokes. Here are some of the most significant pilgrims:

• The Knight: A noble, chivalrous figure, embodying the ideal medieval warrior. He has fought in many crusades and is respected for his accomplishments.
• The Squire: The Knight's son, a young, spirited lover and aspiring knight. He is more interested in fashion, music, and wooing than in warfare.
• The Prioress (Madame Eglentyne): A delicate, sentimental nun who speaks French "demurely," dines elegantly, and seems more concerned with worldly appearances and her lap-dog than with her religious vows.
• The Monk: A robust, worldly churchman who enjoys hunting, fine horses, and rich clothing, openly disregarding monastic rules of poverty and seclusion.
• The Friar (Huberd): A charming but corrupt clergyman who is more adept at seducing women and collecting money than at ministering to the poor. He wears fine clothes and frequents taverns.
• The Merchant: A prosperous but indebted businessman, outwardly appearing dignified but inwardly struggling financially. He is a symbol of the new, ambitious middle class.
• The Clerk of Oxford: A poor, scholarly student who spends all his money on books. He is devoted to learning and speaks little, but when he does, it is with wisdom and dignity.
• The Wife of Bath: A bold, experienced woman who has had five husbands. She is a skilled cloth-maker and travels widely, representing female independence and a challenge to traditional gender roles.
• The Parson: A poor but virtuous priest who truly embodies Christian ideals. He is humble, diligent, and lives by the principles he preaches, contrasting sharply with other corrupt churchmen.
• The Plowman: The Parson's brother, a simple, honest farmer who is depicted as a model of Christian charity and hard work. He represents the ideal peasant.
• The Miller: A large, brawny man with a red beard and a wart on his nose. He is a dishonest cheat who tells crude, bawdy stories.
• The Pardoner: A smooth-talking ecclesiastic who sells forged relics and indulgences. He is depicted as greedy and hypocritical, with a high-pitched voice and effeminate appearance.

Language and Meter

Chaucer wrote *The Canterbury Tales* in Middle English, a form of the English language that is understandable but distinct from Modern English. The *General Prologue* is written in rhyming couplets, typically in iambic pentameter. This meter, consisting of ten syllables per line with an alternating unstressed and stressed pattern, became the dominant meter in English poetry.

Example of iambic pentameter: "Whan that Aprill with his shoures soote" (When April with its sweet showers)

Historical Context

The poem reflects the social and religious landscape of late 14th-century England. Key historical factors include:

• The Black Death (mid-14th century), which had significantly altered the social structure and labor relations.
• The growing power of the merchant class.
• Criticism of the Church, which was facing internal corruption and external challenges (e.g., the Avignon Papacy and the Great Schism).
• The cult of pilgrimage, a popular form of religious devotion.

Spenser - The Faerie Queene Book I

Edmund Spenser and The Faerie Queene

Edmund Spenser (c. 1552 – 1599) was a major English poet of the Elizabethan era, second only to Shakespeare in contemporary reputation. *The Faerie Queene* is his epic masterpiece, an allegorical poem intended to celebrate Queen Elizabeth I and the virtues she represented. Although planned to be 12 books, each dedicated to a specific virtue, only six were completed, along with fragments of a seventh.

Book I, subtitled "The Legend of the Knight of the Red Crosse, or of Holinesse," is the most famous and widely read section. It tells the story of the Redcrosse Knight, who is tasked with slaying the dragon that has plagued the land of Faerie for years. This quest is an allegory for the struggle of Christian virtue against the forces of evil, particularly Catholicism, which Spenser, a Protestant, viewed with suspicion.

The Spenserian Stanza

Spenser invented a unique nine-line stanza, known as the Spenserian stanza, for *The Faerie Queene*. This complex form consists of eight lines of iambic pentameter followed by a final line of iambic hexameter (an alexandrine), with a rhyme scheme of ABABBCBCC.

Example rhyme scheme: A - pentameter B - pentameter A - pentameter B - pentameter B - pentameter C - pentameter B - pentameter C - pentameter C - hexameter (alexandrine)

This stanza allows for both narrative flow and intricate rhyme, contributing to the poem's majestic and musical quality.

Allegory and Symbolism in Book I

*The Faerie Queene* is a deeply allegorical work. Book I allegorizes the virtue of Holiness.

• The Redcrosse Knight: Represents the ideal English Protestant Christian, striving for spiritual perfection and battling sin. His armor is initially bright, symbolizing his pure intentions.
• The Dragon: Symbolizes Satan, the ultimate evil, and by extension, the perceived threat of Catholicism to Protestant England.
• The Faerie Queene (Gloriana): Represents Queen Elizabeth I, embodying the ideal ruler and the glory of England.
• Una: Represents Truth, Divine Grace, or the true Church. She is pure, beautiful, and steadfast, accompanying the Redcrosse Knight on his quest.
• Archimago: Represents deception, hypocrisy, and false appearances. He conjures illusions to mislead the Knight.
• Duessa: Represents falsehood, deception, and the Roman Catholic Church. She is Archimago's accomplice and later becomes the lover of the Knight of the Red Crosse.
• The House of Pride: A place of vanity and sin, where the Knight encounters various deadly sins.
• The Cave of Despair: A place where the Knight is tempted by the hermit Despair to give up hope and commit suicide.

Plot Summary of Book I

The poem begins with the Knight of the Red Crosse being presented at the court of the Faerie Queene. He is granted a quest: to rid the land of a dragon that has plagued it for years. He is accompanied by Una, a princess representing Truth.

Early in his journey, the Knight is deceived by Archimago, a sorcerer who creates illusions of Una to make the Knight believe she is unfaithful. Disgusted, the Knight banishes Una. Una, now alone and vulnerable, encounters the satyrs and is protected by them.

The Knight, meanwhile, falls under the sway of Duessa, who impersonates Una. They visit the House of Pride, where the Knight witnesses the sins of the inhabitants. Later, they encounter Sansloy (without law), who kills Una's squire and attacks Una. The Knight fights Sansloy but is defeated.

Una finds refuge in a cave with the hermit Contemplation, who reveals Duessa's true nature. The Knight, weakened and disillusioned, falls into the Cave of Despair, where he is tempted to suicide by Despair. He narrowly escapes this fate.

Finally, the Knight and Una are reunited. The dragon emerges, and after a fierce battle over three days, the Knight, with divine aid and Una's encouragement, slays the beast. He is crowned the champion of Holiness. However, his victory is tempered by the revelation that he has been deceived by Duessa for years, symbolizing the ongoing struggle against sin and falsehood.

Themes and Significance

Book I explores the nature of Christian virtue, the constant battle against temptation and sin, the importance of truth and faith, and the dangers of deception and pride. It is a complex tapestry of romance, adventure, and religious allegory, reflecting the theological and political concerns of Elizabethan England.

Spenser's archaic language, elaborate style, and intricate allegorical framework make *The Faerie Queene* a challenging but rewarding work. It established Spenser as a master craftsman and profoundly influenced later English poets.

Spenser - Prothalamion and Epithalamion

Introduction

Edmund Spenser also wrote two famous shorter poems celebrating marriage: *Epithalamion* (1595) and *Prothalamion* (1596). Both are lyrical and celebratory, showcasing Spenser's mastery of form and his ability to craft beautiful, evocative verse.

Epithalamion

*Epithalamion* is a wedding poem written for Spenser's own marriage to Elizabeth Boyle. It is a rich, complex, and highly structured poem that unfolds throughout the course of a wedding day, from dawn to night.

The poem is divided into 24 stanzas, each representing an hour of the wedding day. It follows the bride from her waking moments, through her adornment, the procession to the church, the ceremony, the feast, and finally, the consummation of the marriage.

Key Features:

• Structure: 24 stanzas of 10 lines each, with a rhyme scheme of ABABCCDDED. The final line of each stanza is a refrain, often invoking Hymen, the god of marriage.
• Tone: Joyful, celebratory, sensual, and ecstatic. Spenser expresses his deep love and anticipation for his bride.
• Imagery: Vivid descriptions of nature, flowers, music, and the beauty of the bride. There are also references to classical mythology and pagan rituals, blended with Christian sentiment.
• Themes: Love, marriage, fertility, the passage of time, and the celebration of the union between the bride and groom.
• Sensuality: The poem is notable for its frank and beautiful descriptions of the bride's physical beauty and the anticipated consummation of the marriage.

*Epithalamion* is considered one of the finest wedding poems in the English language, celebrated for its lyrical beauty, intricate structure, and passionate celebration of love.

Prothalamion

*Prothalamion* (meaning "before the marriage") is another wedding poem, but it is written for the double marriage of the daughters of Sir John Spencer of Althorp. Unlike *Epithalamion*, it is not written from the perspective of the groom but as an external observer, a more detached yet equally celebratory voice.

The poem is set by the River Thames in London, where the poet observes the swans (symbols of the brides) preparing for their nuptials. It contrasts the beauty of the brides with the ugliness of the city.

Key Features:

• Structure: 18 stanzas of 10 lines each, with a rhyme scheme of ABABCCDDED. It features a recurring refrain: "Sweet Thames, run softly, till I end my song."
• Tone: More serene and reflective than *Epithalamion*, but still deeply celebratory. There is a sense of gentle longing and idealized beauty.
• Imagery: Focuses on the imagery of swans, flowers, and the river Thames. The swans are described in glorious detail, symbolizing the brides' purity and grace.
• Themes: Marriage, beauty, nature, the passage of time, and the contrast between natural beauty and urban life.
• Setting: The River Thames provides a picturesque and symbolic backdrop for the poem.

*Prothalamion* is admired for its exquisite imagery, its musicality, and its elegant portrayal of idealized love and beauty. The recurring refrain creates a sense of peaceful contemplation.

Wyatt and Surrey - Selections in Peacock's English Verse Vol I

Sir Thomas Wyatt (1503-1542)

Sir Thomas Wyatt is a pivotal figure in English poetry, credited with introducing the sonnet form into English literature from Italy. He was a courtier, diplomat, and soldier in the service of Henry VIII. His poetry often reflects his own experiences at court, including his imprisonment and his complex relationships.

Key Contributions and Themes:

• The Sonnet: Wyatt adapted the Italian (Petrarchan) sonnet to English. While Petrarchan sonnets have an octave (8 lines) rhyming ABBAABBA and a sestet (6 lines) with varying rhymes (like CDECDE or CDCDCD), Wyatt often used a slightly different rhyme scheme in the sestet, typically CDCDCD or CDECDE. He also experimented with the final couplet.
• "Whoso list to hunt": This is perhaps Wyatt's most famous poem. It is an adaptation of Petrarch's Sonnet 190 ("Nol mi parve tempo"). The poem uses the metaphor of a deer hunt to describe Wyatt's unrequited and possibly dangerous pursuit of Anne Boleyn, who was Henry VIII's second wife. The final line, "And feed like a lamb, though I bear a hind's head," is particularly poignant, suggesting resignation and perhaps a loss of identity.
• Themes: Unrequited love, the pains and frustrations of love, courtly life, betrayal, and the fleeting nature of fortune. His tone is often melancholic, disillusioned, and introspective.
• Language: Wyatt's language is direct and forceful, often marked by a sense of emotional intensity and realism, contrasting with the more idealized love poetry of the time.

Example of Wyatt's adaptation of the sonnet form: His rhyme scheme often deviates from strict Petrarchan, e.g., ABBAABBA CDECDE.

Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey (1517-1547)

Surrey, a kinsman of Wyatt, further developed the sonnet form in English and is considered one of its chief architects. He was a nobleman, soldier, and poet, known for his elegance and refinement.

Key Contributions and Themes:

• English (Shakespearean) Sonnet Form: Surrey is credited with developing the rhyme scheme that would become standard for the English sonnet: three quatrains and a final couplet (ABAB CDCD EFEF GG). This structure allows for the development of an idea across the quatrains, with a concluding statement or twist in the couplet.
• Blank Verse: Surrey also made significant contributions to blank verse (unrhymed iambic pentameter), particularly in his translation of Virgil's *Aeneid*. This was a major step towards the blank verse used by later playwrights like Marlowe and Shakespeare.
• "Love, that doth reign and live within my thought": This sonnet exemplifies Surrey's more polished and courtly style compared to Wyatt's rawness. It explores the power of love and the beloved's influence.
• "Alas, so all things now do hold their peace": This poem reflects a more somber and elegiac tone, contemplating the transience of life and the absence of conflict, perhaps hinting at his own mortality.
• Themes: Love (often idealized), beauty, transience of life, patriotism, and classical mythology. His style is generally more polished, graceful, and less emotionally turbulent than Wyatt's.

Comparison of Wyatt and Surrey

While both poets were instrumental in establishing the sonnet in English, they had distinct styles:

• Wyatt: More experimental, direct, raw, often melancholic and disillusioned. Focused on personal experience and the harsh realities of love and court life. Adapted the Petrarchan sonnet.
• Surrey: More polished, elegant, controlled, often idealistic. Developed the English sonnet form and pioneered blank verse. His poetry has a greater sense of formal grace.

Ballads - Peacock Vol II

What are Ballads?

Ballads are a form of narrative verse, often set to music. They originated in oral tradition and were typically sung by minstrels or troubadours. Ballads tell stories, often of love, adventure, tragedy, or historical events, in a simple, direct, and often dramatic manner.

Traditional ballads, common in England and Scotland, often have specific characteristics:

• Narrative Focus: They tell a story with a clear plot, characters, and setting.
• Simple Language: The language is usually straightforward and accessible, reflecting their oral origins.
• Repetition: Lines, phrases, or entire stanzas are often repeated (refrains).
• Dialogue: Dialogue is frequently used to advance the plot and reveal character.
• Impersonal Tone: The narrator often remains detached, allowing the events and characters to speak for themselves.
• Common Meter: Many ballads use quatrains (four-line stanzas) with an alternating rhyme scheme (ABCB or ABAB) and alternating lines of iambic tetrameter (four metrical feet) and iambic trimeter (three metrical feet). This is known as ballad meter.
• Themes: Love (often tragic), betrayal, supernatural events, historical incidents, heroic deeds, and social commentary.

Types of Ballads

Ballads can be broadly categorized:

• Folk Ballads: These originated anonymously within the common people and were passed down orally for generations. They often deal with themes of love, death, and the supernatural. Examples include "Sir Patrick Spens," "Barbara Allen," and "The Twa Corbies."
• Literary Ballads: These are composed by known poets who deliberately imitate the style and themes of folk ballads. They often have a more polished structure and sophisticated language but retain the narrative and dramatic qualities of folk ballads. Examples include Coleridge's "The Rime of the Ancient Mariner" and Keats's "La Belle Dame sans Merci."

Key Examples (likely found in Peacock Vol II)

While the specific ballads in Peacock's Vol II are not detailed here, typical examples of traditional English and Scottish ballads that would be studied include:

• "Sir Patrick Spens": A tragic ballad about a Scottish nobleman sent on a perilous sea voyage by his king, which ends in disaster. Themes include loyalty, duty, and fate.
• "The Wife of Usher's Well": A supernatural ballad about a mother who conjures her dead son back from the dead, only for him to return briefly before vanishing again. Themes include grief, the supernatural, and the finality of death.
• "Lord Randall": A dialogue ballad where a young nobleman recounts his journey and the poisoning he suffered, possibly at the hands of his lover. Themes include betrayal, love, and death.
• "Barbara Allen": A famous ballad about unrequited love and revenge, where the dying Barbara Allen refuses to show pity to her lover, who subsequently dies, leading to her own remorse and death. Themes include pride, love, death, and regret.
• "The Twa Corbies" (The Two Ravens): A stark, fatalistic ballad from the perspective of two ravens discussing the remains of a slain knight. It emphasizes the indifference of nature to human suffering and the inevitable decay of the body. Themes include death, nature, and the futility of earthly concerns.

Significance of Ballads

Ballads are crucial for understanding the development of narrative poetry in English. They represent a vital link between oral tradition and written literature. Their simple yet powerful storytelling, memorable characters, and exploration of universal human experiences have ensured their enduring appeal. Studying ballads provides insight into the lives, beliefs, and cultural values of the people who created and sang them.