Delhi Sultanate and Mughal Administration

The Delhi Sultanate (1206-1526 CE)

The Delhi Sultanate was a series of Islamic empires that ruled from Delhi for over three centuries. It was founded by Qutb-ud-din Aibak, a former slave of Muhammad Ghori, in 1206 CE. This period saw the rise and fall of five major dynasties: the Mamluk (Slave) Dynasty, the Khalji Dynasty, the Tughlaq Dynasty, the Sayyid Dynasty, and the Lodi Dynasty. Each dynasty brought its own administrative reforms and architectural styles, leaving a significant impact on the Indian subcontinent.

1. The Mamluk (Slave) Dynasty (1206-1290 CE)

Founded by Qutb-ud-din Aibak, this dynasty was characterized by its reliance on slave soldiers who rose to power. Aibak himself was a capable ruler, known for his generosity and the construction of the Qutub Minar. His successor, Iltutmish, is considered the real consolidator of the Sultanate. He established a strong administrative system, divided the empire into iqtas (territories assigned to officials), and introduced the tanka (silver coin) and jital (copper coin). His daughter, Razia Sultana, became the first and only female ruler of the Delhi Sultanate, showcasing her administrative skills despite facing opposition. The dynasty ended with the rise of Balban, who strengthened the central authority and introduced the concept of divine right of kingship, known as Zill-i-Ilahi (Shadow of God).

2. The Khalji Dynasty (1290-1320 CE)

Jalal-ud-din Firuz Khalji overthrew the Mamluk dynasty and established the Khalji rule. However, it was his ambitious nephew and son-in-law, Ala-ud-din Khalji, who truly expanded and reformed the Sultanate. Ala-ud-din Khalji is renowned for his military conquests, including the annexation of Gujarat and the campaigns in the Deccan. He implemented significant administrative reforms to manage his vast empire and maintain a large standing army. These included market control regulations (Diwan-i-Riyasat) to keep prices of essential commodities low, harsh punishments for hoarding and profiteering, and land revenue reforms to increase state income. He also paid his soldiers in cash, rather than through iqtas, to ensure their loyalty and efficiency.

3. The Tughlaq Dynasty (1320-1414 CE)

Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq founded this dynasty, focusing on restoring order and stability. His son, Muhammad bin Tughlaq, is a controversial figure, known for his ambitious but often ill-fated policies. These included the transfer of the capital from Delhi to Daulatabad (Devagiri), the introduction of a token currency, and increased taxation in the Doab region, which led to widespread discontent and rebellions. Despite his administrative missteps, he was a learned ruler with an interest in various fields. His successor, Firuz Shah Tughlaq, reversed many of his policies, focusing on public welfare. He abolished many taxes, built canals, hospitals (Dar-ul-Shifa), and cities like Jaunpur, Firuzabad, and Hissar. He also established the Diwan-i-Khairat (Department of Charity) for the welfare of the poor and the Diwan-i-Bandagan (Department of Slaves) to manage the large number of slaves.

4. The Sayyid Dynasty (1414-1451 CE)

This dynasty emerged after the invasion of Timur (Tamerlane) in 1398 CE, which weakened the Tughlaq empire significantly. The Sayyids were relatively weak rulers, and their authority was largely confined to Delhi and its surrounding areas. They managed to maintain the Sultanate, but it was a period of political fragmentation and instability.

5. The Lodi Dynasty (1451-1526 CE)

Bahlol Lodi founded the last dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate. The Lodis were of Afghan origin and sought to consolidate their power. Ibrahim Lodi, the last ruler, faced numerous rebellions and was ultimately defeated by Babur at the First Battle of Panipat in 1526 CE, marking the end of the Delhi Sultanate and the beginning of the Mughal Empire.

Administration of the Delhi Sultanate

The administrative structure of the Delhi Sultanate was largely based on Persian and Turkish models, adapted to Indian conditions. The Sultan was the head of the state and the government, wielding absolute power, though often advised by a council of ministers.

The Sultan and the Central Government

The Sultan was the supreme commander of the army, the chief legislator, and the highest judicial authority. He was assisted by various ministers and departments:

• Naib (Deputy): In the early period, the Naib held considerable power, sometimes acting as a regent.
• Wazir (Prime Minister): The chief minister, responsible for the overall administration and revenue collection. He supervised all other departments.
• Diwan-i-Arz (Military Department): Headed by the Ariz-i-Mumalik, this department was responsible for the recruitment, training, equipping, and discipline of the army.
• Diwan-i-Insha (Department of Correspondence): Responsible for royal correspondence and issuing official documents.
• Diwan-i-Rasalat (Department of Appeals/Foreign Affairs): Dealt with religious matters, appeals, and diplomatic relations with foreign states.
• Sadr-us-Sudur (Chief Sadr): Head of the ecclesiastical department and chief justice, responsible for the implementation of Sharia law.
• Qazi (Judge): Appointed in various parts of the empire to administer justice. The Sultan was the chief Qazi.
• Barid-i-Mumalik (Intelligence Department): Headed by the Barid-i-Mumalik, this department managed a network of spies and news-reporters across the empire.

Provincial and Local Administration

The Sultanate was divided into provinces called Iqtas. These iqtas were assigned to high officials, known as Muqtis or Walis, who were responsible for maintaining law and order, collecting revenue, and commanding troops in their respective regions. The Muqtis were accountable to the Sultan. Below the provincial level, the administration was further divided into smaller units:

• Shiq (District): Administered by a Shiqdar.
• Pargana (Sub-district): Managed by an Amil or Mutsarrif, who was responsible for revenue collection and judicial matters.
• Village: The lowest unit, administered by the village headman and the village council (Panchayat), which largely retained its traditional role.

Revenue System

The revenue system was crucial for the functioning of the Sultanate. The main sources of revenue included:

• Land Revenue (Kharaj): This was the primary source. Ala-ud-din Khalji fixed it at half the produce. Firuz Shah Tughlaq also implemented revenue reforms, including the measurement of land.
• Jaziya: A poll tax levied on non-Muslims.
• Zakat: A religious tax on Muslims.
• Trade Taxes: Taxes on goods and merchandise.

The Mughal Empire (1526-1857 CE)

The Mughal Empire, established by Babur in 1526 CE after defeating Ibrahim Lodi at the Battle of Panipat, became one of the most powerful and influential empires in Indian history. It lasted for over three centuries, leaving a lasting legacy in administration, art, architecture, and culture. The empire reached its zenith under rulers like Akbar, Jahangir, Shah Jahan, and Aurangzeb.

1. Babur (1526-1530 CE)

Babur, a descendant of Timur and Genghis Khan, laid the foundation of the Mughal Empire. He was a skilled military leader who introduced advanced warfare techniques, including the use of artillery and the Tulughma tactic (flanking maneuver). His victory at Panipat and later at Khanwa against the Rajput confederacy established his dominance in North India. He wrote his autobiography, the Baburnama, which provides valuable insights into his life and times.

2. Humayun (1530-1540 CE and 1555-1556 CE)

Babur's son, Humayun, inherited a vast but unstable empire. He faced a strong challenge from Sher Shah Suri, an Afghan leader, who defeated him at the Battles of Chausa (1539) and Kannauj (1540), forcing Humayun into exile for 15 years. Sher Shah Suri established a strong administrative system during his brief rule (1540-1545), which the Mughals later adopted. Humayun eventually regained his throne in 1555 with Persian support but died shortly after in 1556.

3. Akbar (1556-1605 CE)

Akbar, Humayun's son, is considered the greatest Mughal emperor. He consolidated the empire, expanded its territories significantly through military campaigns and diplomacy, and established a highly efficient and centralized administrative system. Key aspects of his reign include:

• Expansion and Conquests: Annexation of Malwa, Gujarat, Bengal, Kashmir, and campaigns in the Deccan.
• Rajput Policy: Akbar pursued a policy of reconciliation with the Rajput rulers, offering them positions of power and respect in his administration, which led to lasting alliances.
• Religious Policy: He promoted religious tolerance, abolished the Jaziya tax on non-Muslims, and initiated discussions on different faiths through the Ibadat Khana (House of Worship). He also introduced Sulah-i-Kul (universal peace) and his own syncretic religion, Din-i-Ilahi.
• Administrative Reforms: Introduced the Mansabdari system and the Zabt system for revenue collection.

4. Jahangir (1605-1627 CE)

Jahangir, known for his love of art and justice, continued his father's policies. He maintained cordial relations with the European traders, notably the English East India Company. His reign saw the influence of his wife, Nur Jahan.

5. Shah Jahan (1627-1658 CE)

Shah Jahan's reign is considered the "Golden Age of Mughal Architecture." He commissioned magnificent buildings like the Taj Mahal, Red Fort, and Jama Masjid. Administratively, he focused on consolidating the empire and maintaining law and order.

6. Aurangzeb (1658-1707 CE)

Aurangzeb was a devout Muslim and an able administrator and military commander. He expanded the empire to its largest territorial extent, reaching the Deccan. However, his religious policies, including the re-imposition of Jaziya and destruction of temples, alienated many communities and contributed to the decline of the empire after his death. His long wars in the Deccan also drained the imperial treasury.

Post-Aurangzeb Period (1707-1857 CE)

After Aurangzeb's death, the Mughal Empire entered a period of decline due to weak successors, internal strife, rise of regional powers (Marathas, Sikhs, Jats), and foreign invasions (Nadir Shah, Ahmad Shah Abdali). By the mid-18th century, the Mughal emperor was a titular head, with real power held by various nobles and regional rulers. The British gradually gained control, and the last Mughal emperor, Bahadur Shah Zafar II, was deposed after the Indian Mutiny of 1857.

Mughal Administration

The Mughal administrative system was highly centralized and organized, reflecting a sophisticated bureaucracy. It was influenced by Persian and Indian traditions and was instrumental in maintaining stability and prosperity across the vast empire.

The Emperor (Badshah)

The Emperor was the absolute monarch, the head of the state, government, and the army. He was also the chief legislator and the highest judicial authority. The Mughal emperors were generally patrons of art, literature, and architecture.

Central Administration

The Emperor was assisted by a council of ministers, known as the Ashtapradhan in the Maratha administration, but in Mughal administration, key officials included:

• Wazir (Chief Minister): Also known as Vakil in early reigns. He was the head of the revenue and finance department and oversaw the general administration.
• Diwan-i-Ala (Finance Minister): Responsible for the state's income and expenditure. He supervised the revenue collection and expenditure process.
• Mir Bakshi (Paymaster General): Head of the military department. He was responsible for the organization, recruitment, and salaries of the army. He also acted as the head of intelligence and information gathering.
• Khan-i-Saman (Chief Steward): Looked after the royal household, including the Emperor's personal staff, stores, and finances.
• Qazi-ul-Quzzat (Chief Justice): Head of the judicial department. He supervised the administration of justice and appointed subordinate Qazis.
• Sadr-us-Sudur (Chief Sadr): Minister in charge of religious affairs, charities, and endowments. He also supervised the judicial department in matters of Muslim law.
• Mir Atish (Master of Artillery): In charge of the artillery department.
• Darogha-i-Dak Chauki (Superintendent of Posts): Head of the intelligence and postal department.

The Mansabdari System

Introduced by Akbar, the Mansabdari system was a unique feature of Mughal administration. It was a hierarchical system that determined the rank and status of both civil and military officials. Every official was given a mansab (rank), indicated by a number, which represented his position in the hierarchy. The number represented two ranks:

• Zat: Determined the personal status of the official and the number of soldiers he was expected to maintain.
• Sawār: Determined the number of cavalrymen the official had to keep with him.

Mansabdars were paid salaries in cash or assigned land revenue assignments called jagirs. This system ensured a well-organized military and civil service, promoting loyalty and efficiency.

Provincial Administration

The empire was divided into large provinces called Subahs. Each Subah was headed by a Subedar (or Nizam), who was the governor and represented the Emperor's authority in the province. The Subedar was responsible for maintaining law and order, administering justice, and overseeing the collection of revenue. Other important officials in the province included:

• Diwan: Responsible for revenue collection and finance in the province.
• Bakshi: Military paymaster and intelligence officer.
• Sadr: Responsible for religious affairs and charities.
• Qazi: Judicial officer.
• Kotwal: Chief of police and city administration in towns.

Local Administration

Provinces were further divided into Sarkars (districts), and each Sarkar was divided into Parganas (sub-districts). The administration at the Pargana level was managed by officials like the Shiqdar (executive officer) and the Amil (revenue collector). The Potdar (treasurer) and Karkun (accountant) also assisted in revenue administration. The village remained the basic unit, with the Panchayat continuing to play a significant role in local affairs.

Revenue System (Zabt System)

The Mughal revenue system, particularly the Zabt system, was highly sophisticated. Introduced by Todar Mal under Akbar, it involved the measurement of land and classification based on fertility. The state's share was generally fixed at one-third of the average produce of different crops over the past ten years, payable in cash. This system aimed for fairness and standardization in revenue collection.

Judicial System

Justice was administered through civil and criminal courts. The Emperor was the highest court of appeal. The Qazi presided over the courts, applying Muslim law (Sharia) and local customs. The Mir Adl assisted the Qazi in dispensing justice. Village elders and the Panchayat resolved local disputes.

Military Organization

The Mughal army was a powerful force, comprising infantry (piyadah), cavalry (sawār), artillery (topkhana), and war elephants. The Mir Bakshi was responsible for its organization and maintenance. The Mansabdari system ensured a disciplined and well-equipped cavalry, which formed the backbone of the army.

Intelligence and Communication

A robust network of spies and news-reporters (Harkaras) operated under the Darogha-i-Dak Chauki. This system kept the central government informed about events in the provinces and ensured efficient communication through a well-established postal system (Chauki).