Different Modes of Agitation: Growth of Satyagraha and Militant Movements

The Indian National Movement was a complex and multifaceted struggle for independence. Over time, the methods employed by various groups and leaders evolved, reflecting different philosophies and strategies. These methods can broadly be categorized into two main streams: the Gandhian approach of Satyagraha and the more militant or revolutionary approach. Understanding the growth and interplay of these different modes of agitation is crucial to grasping the dynamics of India's freedom struggle.

The Gandhian Approach: Satyagraha

Mahatma Gandhi introduced and popularized Satyagraha as a unique and powerful method of resistance. The term 'Satyagraha' is derived from Sanskrit words: 'Satya' meaning truth and 'Agraha' meaning firmness or holding fast. Thus, Satyagraha means 'holding firmly to the truth' or 'truth force'. It is not merely passive resistance; it is an active force, a moral and spiritual weapon.

Core Principles of Satyagraha:

• Truth (Satya): The struggle must be based on truth and righteousness.
• Non-violence (Ahimsa): Violence in thought, word, or deed is strictly forbidden. The aim is to convert the opponent, not to defeat or humiliate them.
• Self-Suffering: The Satyagrahi is willing to suffer hardship, imprisonment, or even death without retaliation. This suffering is meant to appeal to the conscience of the oppressor.
• Discipline: Strict adherence to rules and discipline is essential for the success of Satyagraha.

Methods of Satyagraha:

Satyagraha was implemented through various forms of non-violent protest:

• Non-cooperation: Refusal to cooperate with the unjust system. This included boycotting government institutions, courts, schools, and foreign goods.
• Civil Disobedience: Deliberate violation of unjust laws, coupled with readiness to accept the legal penalties. The Salt Satyagraha is a prime example.
• Strikes and Hartals: Peaceful cessation of work or business to protest against policies or actions.
• Boycotts: Refusing to buy or use certain goods or services, particularly foreign goods.
• Fasting: Gandhi often resorted to fasting as a form of protest and moral persuasion, both for himself and to influence others.

Growth of Satyagraha: Key Movements

Satyagraha was not a static concept but evolved through practical application in major movements:

• Champaran Satyagraha (1917): Gandhi's first major success in India. He used Satyagraha to protest the exploitative indigo plantation system in Bihar. Farmers were forced to grow indigo and sell it at low prices. Gandhi's intervention led to concessions from the authorities.
• Kheda Satyagraha (1918): In Gujarat, farmers were demanding remission of land revenue due to crop failure. Gandhi organized a campaign of non-payment of revenue, urging peasants to refuse to pay taxes until the government canceled the revenue demand.
• Ahmedabad Mill Strike (1918): Gandhi intervened in a dispute between mill owners and workers over a plague bonus. He advocated for arbitration and went on a fast to pressure the owners. This demonstrated Satyagraha's applicability in industrial disputes.
• Rowlatt Satyagraha (1919): In response to the repressive Rowlatt Act, which allowed detention without trial, Gandhi called for a nationwide hartal (strike). This was a significant step towards a mass movement, though it was later called off due to violence at certain places like Jallianwala Bagh.
• Non-Cooperation Movement (1920-22): This was a large-scale movement where people boycotted government jobs, schools, colleges, courts, and foreign goods. It aimed to cripple the British administration through non-cooperation. The movement was eventually withdrawn by Gandhi after the Chauri Chaura incident.
• Civil Disobedience Movement (1930-34): Launched with the famous Dandi March and Salt Satyagraha, this movement defied specific unjust laws. It involved widespread violation of salt laws and other regulations.
• Quit India Movement (1942): Although more spontaneous and sometimes violent, the underlying call was for complete withdrawal of the British, rooted in the Gandhian ideal of achieving independence.

Militant Movements and Revolutionary Activities

Alongside the Gandhian movement, another stream of agitation emerged, characterized by a belief in direct action, armed struggle, and revolutionary tactics. These groups, often termed 'revolutionaries' or 'militants', felt that non-violent methods were too slow or ineffective in achieving complete independence from a determined imperial power.

Ideology and Motivation:

• Disillusionment with Non-violence: Many revolutionaries felt that British repression, especially after events like the Jallianwala Bagh massacre, proved that non-violence alone would not suffice.
• Desire for Quick Results: They believed that armed revolution was a faster path to freedom.
• Influence of Global Revolutions: Ideas from revolutions in Russia, Ireland, and Italy inspired some of these groups.
• Nationalist Fervor: An intense desire to overthrow foreign rule and establish a sovereign Indian nation.

Methods Employed:

• Organizing Secret Societies: Groups like the Anushilan Samiti and Yugantar were formed.
• Acquiring Arms: Efforts were made to procure weapons, often smuggled from abroad or stolen.
• Assassinations and Bombings: Targeted attacks on British officials, police informers, and symbols of British authority.
• Dacoities and Robberies: Funds were raised through robberies of banks, trains, and wealthy individuals to finance their activities.
• Propaganda: Publishing revolutionary literature and newspapers to spread their ideology.

Prominent Militant/Revolutionary Groups and Activities:

These activities were concentrated in specific regions and periods:

• Bengal: This region was a hotbed of revolutionary activity.
  • Anushilan Samiti: Founded in 1902, it had numerous branches and trained young men in physical and revolutionary activities. Key figures included Prafulla Chandra Ghosh and Surya Sen.
  • Yugantar: Started in 1906, it was more directly involved in armed actions. Notable incidents include the attempt to assassinate Viceroy Lord Hardinge in 1912 with a bomb in Delhi, and the Muzaffarpur bombing in 1908 by Khudiram Bose and Prafulla Chaki, which tragically killed two British women instead of the intended judge.
  • Chittagong Armoury Raid (1930): Led by Surya Sen, a group of revolutionaries raided the police and auxiliary forces' armoury in Chittagong, hoisting the Indian flag. This was a daring act of defiance.
• Maharashtra:
  • The Mitra Mela and Abhinav Bharat, founded by V.D. Savarkar, were key organizations.
  • The assassination of the Collector of Nashik, A.M.T. Jackson, in 1909 by Anant Kanhere was a significant event linked to Abhinav Bharat.
• Punjab:
  • The Ghadar Party, formed by Indian immigrants in North America, aimed to incite a revolt in India. While not strictly violent in its initial planning, its objective was armed uprising.
• Other Areas: Revolutionary activities also occurred in places like Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, and Delhi.

Interplay and Evolution of Agitation Modes

It is important to note that the Gandhian and militant streams were not always entirely separate. There were periods of overlap, tension, and even mutual influence.

Periods of Tension:

Gandhi often disapproved of the violence employed by revolutionaries, fearing it would derail the moral basis of the freedom struggle and provoke harsher repression. He believed that violence only breeds more violence.

Periods of Convergence:

However, there were instances where the two approaches complemented each other. The fear of revolutionary violence sometimes made the British authorities more willing to negotiate with Gandhi and the Congress. For instance, the revolutionary activities in the 1920s and 30s kept pressure on the British, even as Gandhi led mass non-violent campaigns.

Influence on Each Other:

The success of Satyagraha in mobilizing vast numbers of people inspired many who were previously inclined towards violence. Conversely, the continued existence and occasional successes of militant groups demonstrated the deep-seated desire for freedom, which the British could not ignore.

Shift Towards Mass Mobilization:

Over time, especially with Gandhi's leadership, the dominant mode of agitation shifted towards mass mobilization through non-violent means. However, the spirit of defiance and the willingness to make sacrifices, whether through Satyagraha or revolutionary action, remained central to the Indian freedom struggle.

Factors Contributing to the Growth of Satyagraha

Several factors facilitated the growth and success of Satyagraha:

• Gandhi's Leadership: His charisma, moral authority, and clear articulation of principles made Satyagraha accessible and appealing.
• Mass Participation: Satyagraha aimed to involve all sections of society – peasants, workers, women, and students.
• Simplicity of Methods: Non-cooperation and civil disobedience were easier for the common person to understand and participate in compared to complex political negotiations or armed struggle.
• Moral High Ground: The emphasis on non-violence gave the Indian movement a strong moral standing internationally and domestically.
• British Repression: Paradoxically, the harshness of British responses often strengthened the resolve of the Satyagrahis and garnered public sympathy.

Factors Contributing to the Growth of Militant Movements

The growth of militant movements was fueled by different, yet equally potent, factors:

• Intense Nationalism: A deep-seated desire to regain national dignity and sovereignty.
• Perceived Failure of Constitutional Methods: The slow pace of reforms and the unresponsiveness of the British government led many to believe that constitutional means were futile.
• Brutality of Colonial Rule: Events like the Jallianwala Bagh massacre created immense anger and a desire for retribution.
• Influence of Global Revolutionary Ideas: Nationalist movements in other countries often inspired Indian revolutionaries.
• Desire for Immediate Action: Impatience with the gradualist approach of mainstream politics.

In conclusion, the Indian freedom struggle was characterized by a dynamic interplay of different modes of agitation. While Satyagraha, with its emphasis on truth and non-violence, became the dominant force under Gandhi's leadership, the militant and revolutionary movements played a significant role in challenging British authority through direct action and armed struggle. Both streams, in their own ways, contributed to the eventual achievement of India's independence, reflecting the diverse aspirations and strategies of a nation striving for freedom.