Samuel Johnson - Life of Milton

Introduction to Samuel Johnson

Samuel Johnson (1709-1784) was a towering figure of 18th-century English literature, a prolific writer, critic, essayist, and lexicographer. He is best known for his *A Dictionary of the English Language* (1755), which was the most authoritative and comprehensive English dictionary for over a century. Johnson's critical essays and biographies, particularly his *Lives of the English Poets*, are considered masterpieces of literary criticism and biography. His wit, intellect, and profound understanding of human nature made him a central figure in London's literary and social circles. He was a leading member of the Literary Club, a group of prominent intellectuals.

Context of 'Life of Milton'

'The Life of John Milton' is one of the biographies included in Johnson's *The Lives of the English Poets*, published in 1779-1781. This collection aimed to provide biographical and critical essays on a wide range of English poets, from the Renaissance to the late 18th century. Johnson's approach was often characterized by a blend of biographical detail and sharp critical analysis, reflecting his own literary theories and prejudices. His assessment of Milton is particularly significant, given Milton's stature and Johnson's own strong views on poetry, politics, and religion.

Biographical Details of John Milton

John Milton (1608-1674) was a poet, polemicist, and civil servant for the Commonwealth of England under Oliver Cromwell. He is best known for his epic poem *Paradise Lost*, a monumental work in blank verse that retells the biblical story of the Fall of Man. Milton was a staunch defender of republicanism and freedom of speech, evident in his political pamphlets like *Areopagitica* (1644), a powerful argument against censorship. His life was marked by intense intellectual pursuits, political engagement, and personal tragedy, including blindness later in life.

Johnson's Critical Assessment of Milton

Johnson's biography of Milton is notable for its complex and often contradictory portrayal. While acknowledging Milton's genius and the grandeur of *Paradise Lost*, Johnson frequently critiques Milton's political views, his perceived arrogance, and his stylistic choices. Johnson, a staunch Tory and Anglican, was critical of Milton's Puritanism and his radical political stance during the English Civil War. He found Milton's prose style to be often overwrought and his poetry, particularly in his later works, to be too learned and lacking in natural grace.

Key Points of Johnson's Critique:

• Politics and Religion: Johnson disapproves of Milton's republican sympathies and his defence of regicide (the execution of Charles I). He views Milton's Puritanism as austere and joyless.
• Style and Language: While admiring the scope of *Paradise Lost*, Johnson criticizes Milton's use of Latinate vocabulary and his "learned" style, arguing it is often obscure and unnatural. He famously stated that Milton "writes not of man, but of Man."
• Personal Character: Johnson sometimes presents Milton as proud and self-important, particularly in his treatment of his daughters and his defence of his own actions.
• Poetic Merit: Despite his criticisms, Johnson ultimately places Milton among the greatest English poets, acknowledging the sublime power and imaginative scope of *Paradise Lost*. He praises Milton's ability to create a vast and coherent mythological world.

Johnson's Views on Milton's Major Works

Johnson dedicates significant attention to Milton's poetry. He discusses *Paradise Lost*, *Paradise Regained*, and the shorter poems like 'Lycidas' and the sonnets. His analysis of *Paradise Lost* focuses on its epic qualities, its theological themes, and its structure. He admires the invention of the plot and the grandeur of the descriptions but criticizes certain aspects of characterization and language. For 'Lycidas', Johnson offers one of his most famous, and perhaps most controversial, pronouncements, calling it a "lamentation for the death of a friend, in which the author is supposed to succeed the deceased shepherd; but which has, on this occasion, been by accident brought into comparison with all that is to follow." He found its pastoral conventions artificial and its elegiac tone inconsistent.

Legacy and Significance

Johnson's 'Life of Milton' is a landmark in literary biography and criticism. It exemplifies the biographical-critical approach, where the author's life and character are seen as inseparable from their work. Johnson's often biased but always insightful commentary shaped perceptions of Milton for generations. His work highlights the enduring tension between admiration for artistic achievement and disagreement with the artist's personal beliefs or political actions. It remains a crucial text for understanding both Milton and the critical standards of the 18th century.

John Bunyan - The Pilgrim's Progress

Introduction to John Bunyan

John Bunyan (1628-1688) was an English preacher, theologian, and writer, renowned for his masterpiece, *The Pilgrim's Progress*. Born into a poor family in Bedfordshire, Bunyan had little formal education but possessed a powerful intellect and a deep religious conviction. He became a Baptist minister and was frequently imprisoned for his unauthorized preaching during a time when nonconformist religious activities were suppressed. His experiences in prison profoundly influenced his writing, providing him with the time and inspiration to craft his allegorical tales.

Historical and Religious Context

*The Pilgrim's Progress* was first published in 1678, during a period of significant religious upheaval in England following the English Civil War and the Restoration of the monarchy. Puritanism, a movement advocating for reforms in the Church of England, had been influential but was later suppressed. Bunyan, a devout Puritan, wrote from within this tradition, aiming to provide spiritual instruction and encouragement to ordinary Christians facing trials and temptations. The book reflects the anxieties and hopes of a society grappling with questions of faith, salvation, and the afterlife.

Genre and Form: Allegory

*The Pilgrim's Progress* is a profound example of Christian allegory. An allegory is a narrative in which characters, settings, and events represent abstract ideas or moral qualities. In Bunyan's work, the journey of the protagonist, Christian, from the City of Destruction to the Celestial City is a symbolic representation of the Christian life, from conversion to salvation. The characters Christian encounters – Faithful, Hopeful, Mr. Worldly Wiseman, Giant Despair – embody virtues, vices, or spiritual challenges.

Key Elements of the Allegory:

• The Journey: Represents the Christian life, filled with spiritual obstacles and divine aid.
• The City of Destruction: Symbolizes the sinful, worldly life that Christians must leave behind.
• The Celestial City: Represents Heaven, the ultimate goal of the Christian pilgrim.
• Characters: Names like Christian, Faithful, Hopeful, Ignorance, and the inhabitants of Vanity Fair directly signify their moral or spiritual nature.
• Places: The Slough of Despond, the Valley of Humiliation, Vanity Fair, and the Delectable Mountains are symbolic locations representing spiritual states or experiences.

Summary of Part I: The Pilgrim's Progress from This World to That Which Is to Come

The story begins with a man named Christian, who is burdened by the weight of his sins and reads a book (the Bible) that tells him he must flee from the wrath to come. He leaves his family and his home in the City of Destruction. He meets Evangelist, who directs him on the path to the Wicket Gate. Along the way, Christian encounters various obstacles and characters:

• The Slough of Despond: A miry bog representing despair and doubt.
• Mr. Worldly Wiseman: Represents reliance on worldly wisdom rather than faith.
• The Interpreter's House: A place where Christian receives spiritual instruction and visions.
• The Valley of Humiliation: Where Christian fights and defeats the demon Apollyon.
• The Valley of the Shadow of Death: A dark and terrifying place symbolizing spiritual desolation.
• Faithful: A fellow pilgrim Christian meets; they travel together until Faithful is martyred at Vanity Fair.
• Hopeful: A new companion Christian meets after Faithful's death; Hopeful becomes his steadfast companion.
• The Delectable Mountains: Offer pilgrims a view of the Celestial City.
• Doubting Castle: Where Christian and Hopeful are imprisoned by Giant Despair and his wife Diffidence, but they escape using the Key of Promise.

Finally, after crossing the River of Death, Christian and Hopeful are welcomed into the Celestial City by angels.

Summary of Part II: The Pilgrim's Progress of Christian's Wife and Children

Part II follows the journey of Christian's wife, Christiana, and their four sons, along with a company of other pilgrims. Christiana, initially reluctant, is inspired to follow her husband. Their guide is Mr. Greatheart, a strong and faithful companion. This part is generally considered gentler and more detailed in its depiction of the Christian community and the practicalities of the spiritual life. It emphasizes the importance of the church and fellowship. The pilgrims face similar trials to Christian but often with more support and guidance. Part II also concludes with the pilgrims reaching the Celestial City.

Themes and Significance

*The Pilgrim's Progress* explores several profound themes:

• Salvation: The central theme is the journey to salvation through faith in Christ.
• Spiritual Warfare: The Christian life is depicted as a constant battle against sin, temptation, and demonic forces.
• Perseverance: The importance of enduring hardship and maintaining faith despite obstacles is crucial.
• The Church and Community: Part II highlights the role of fellowship and mutual support in the Christian journey.
• Worldly vs. Spiritual Values: The contrast between the transient attractions of the world (e.g., Vanity Fair) and the eternal rewards of faith is a recurring motif.

Bunyan's simple, direct prose, combined with his vivid imagination and profound theological insight, made *The Pilgrim's Progress* incredibly popular. It became one of the most widely read books in the English language, second only to the Bible, and has been translated into over 200 languages. Its allegorical power continues to resonate with readers, offering timeless lessons on faith, resilience, and the human spiritual quest.

Henry Fielding - Tom Jones

Introduction to Henry Fielding

Henry Fielding (1707-1754) was an English novelist and dramatist, considered one of the founders of the English novel. He was also a magistrate and social reformer. Fielding's works are known for their satirical wit, complex plots, and realistic portrayal of 18th-century English society. Unlike the more sentimental novels of his contemporaries, Fielding's novels often embrace a robust, sometimes bawdy, humour and a deep engagement with the moral and social issues of his time. He was the brother of Sarah Fielding, also a novelist.

Historical and Literary Context

*The History of Tom Jones*, published in 1749, emerged during the Augustan age, a period characterized by reason, order, and satire, but also by a growing interest in individualism and realism. It followed Fielding's earlier novels like *Joseph Andrews* (1742) and *Jonathan Wild* (1743), which helped establish his reputation as a master of satirical prose. *Tom Jones* is often seen as the culmination of his literary efforts, a sprawling, ambitious novel that sought to present a panoramic view of English life and explore the nature of goodness.

Genre and Style: The Comic Epic in Prose

Fielding described *Tom Jones* as a "comic epic poem in prose." This designation highlights several key features:

• Epic Scope: The novel covers a vast geographical area (from the English countryside to London) and a large cast of characters, encompassing various social strata. It deals with grand themes of love, honour, justice, and Providence.
• Comic Tone: Despite the serious themes, the novel is infused with humour, irony, and satire. Fielding frequently breaks the narrative to address the reader directly, offering commentary and wry observations.
• Prose Narrative: It uses the structure and devices of epic poetry (invocations, grand narratives, elevated language for mundane events) but applies them to a realistic, contemporary setting in prose.
• Omniscient Narrator: Fielding employs a highly visible, omniscient narrator who comments on the action, judges the characters, and guides the reader's interpretation. This narrator is a key element of the novel's style and humour.

Plot Summary

The novel centres on the adventures of Thomas Jones, a foundling of unknown parentage raised by the benevolent Squire Allworthy in Somerset. Tom is portrayed as a good-hearted, generous, and inherently virtuous young man, but he is also prone to impulsive actions, a weakness for the opposite sex, and a general disregard for strict social conventions. His upbringing is contrasted with that of Master Blifil, Squire Allworthy's nephew, who is outwardly pious and diligent but inwardly malicious and hypocritical.

The plot unfolds through a series of complex twists and turns:

• Early Life: Tom's childhood and youth at Prospect Hall, his love for Sophia Western (the daughter of the neighbouring squire, Western), and his conflicts with Blifil.
• Exile: Tom is unjustly accused of various misdeeds (including impregnating a servant girl, Molly Seagrim, though this is later revealed to be a deception) and banished from Squire Allworthy's estate.
• Journey to London: Tom travels to London, encountering numerous characters and situations that test his character. He demonstrates his innate goodness by defending the honour of Sophia and helping various people in need, often at his own expense.
• Sophia's Pursuit: Sophia, forced by her father to consider marrying Blifil, flees to London to escape the match and find Tom.
• Intrigue and Revelation: A web of intrigue involving Blifil, Lady Bellaston (a manipulative aristocratic woman who takes an interest in Tom), and others unfolds.
• Resolution: Through a series of dramatic revelations, it is discovered that Tom is actually Squire Allworthy's grand-nephew, making him the rightful heir. Blifil's villainy is exposed. Tom and Sophia are finally reunited and marry, with Tom having proven his virtue through his actions rather than mere outward conformity.

Characters

The novel features a rich cast of memorable characters:

• Tom Jones: The protagonist, embodies natural goodness, generosity, and passion, but lacks prudence and self-control. He represents the ideal of innate virtue.
• Sophia Western: Tom's love interest, intelligent, virtuous, and spirited. She represents a more refined and socially acceptable form of goodness.
• Squire Allworthy: The benevolent patriarch who raises Tom. He represents an ideal of justice and wisdom, though he can be deceived by appearances.
• Master Blifil: The antagonist, outwardly religious and moral but inwardly corrupt, envious, and manipulative. He represents hypocrisy and false virtue.
• Squire Western: Sophia's father, a boisterous, uncultured country gentleman obsessed with hunting and social status.
• Mrs. Western: Sophia's aunt, pretends to be sophisticated and worldly but is often foolish and meddling.
• Lady Bellaston: A cunning and amoral aristocrat who attempts to seduce Tom.
• Molly Seagrim: A young woman from the village whom Tom has a dalliance with, used by Blifil to discredit Tom.
• Partridge: A schoolmaster who travels with Tom to London, serving as a comic foil and sometimes offering misguided advice.

Themes

*Tom Jones* explores several significant themes:

• Nature vs. Artifice (or Grace vs. Prudence): The central conflict is between Tom's natural, instinctive goodness and Blifil's learned, hypocritical virtue. Fielding seems to favour natural goodness, arguing that true virtue comes from the heart, not from adherence to rules or outward piety.
• Appearance vs. Reality: The novel constantly contrasts how characters appear with their true nature. Blifil and Lady Bellaston are masters of deception, while Tom's outward flaws often hide a noble spirit.
• Justice and Providence: The intricate plot, with its numerous coincidences and revelations, suggests a guiding hand of Providence ensuring that justice is ultimately served and virtue rewarded.
• Social Satire: Fielding satirizes various aspects of 18th-century society, including the legal system, the aristocracy, the clergy, and the pretensions of polite society.
• Love and Marriage: The novel examines different forms of love and the institution of marriage, contrasting genuine affection (Tom and Sophia) with arranged matches and purely physical or political unions.