Nationalism and Independence

I. The Rise of Nationalism in India

Nationalism, as a political and social movement, began to take root in India in the late 19th century. It was a response to British colonial rule, which had systematically exploited India's resources and undermined its political, economic, and social structures. Several factors contributed to the rise of Indian nationalism.

A. Socio-Religious Reform Movements

The 19th century witnessed a wave of socio-religious reform movements across India. Figures like Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Swami Dayanand Saraswati, Swami Vivekananda, and Mahatma Jyotiba Phule challenged social evils like Sati, child marriage, caste discrimination, and superstition. These movements not only aimed at social reform but also fostered a sense of pride in India's cultural heritage and a critical outlook towards foreign domination. They awakened the consciousness of the people and laid the groundwork for a broader political awakening.

• Brahmo Samaj (1828): Founded by Raja Ram Mohan Roy, it advocated for monotheism, rationalism, and social reforms.
• Arya Samaj (1875): Founded by Swami Dayanand Saraswati, it promoted Vedic ideals and challenged religious superstitions.
• Ramakrishna Mission (1897): Founded by Swami Vivekananda, it emphasized spiritual strength and selfless service.
• Prarthana Samaj (1867): Founded in Bombay, it focused on monotheism and social reform.
• Aligarh Movement: Led by Sir Syed Ahmed Khan, it aimed at modern education for Muslims.
• Theosophical Society (1875): Founded by Helena Blavatsky and Henry Olcott, it promoted universal brotherhood and Indian spirituality.

B. Impact of Western Education and Ideas

The introduction of Western education by the British, though serving their administrative needs, inadvertently spread liberal ideas of democracy, liberty, equality, and nationalism. Indian intellectuals educated in Western thought began to question the legitimacy of colonial rule and advocate for self-governance. The press, both English and vernacular, played a crucial role in disseminating these ideas and mobilizing public opinion. Newspapers like the 'Amrita Bazar Patrika', 'The Bengalee', 'The Maratha', and 'The Kesari' became powerful tools for nationalist propaganda.

C. Economic Exploitation by the British

British economic policies were largely detrimental to India. The deindustrialization of India, the drain of wealth, and the imposition of heavy taxes impoverished the Indian peasantry and artisans. Nationalist thinkers like Dadabhai Naoroji, M.G. Ranade, and Romesh Chandra Dutt articulated the "Drain Theory," explaining how India's wealth was being systematically transferred to Britain. This economic exploitation fueled resentment and strengthened the demand for Swaraj (self-rule).

D. Political and Administrative Unification

While the British administrative and political unification of India under a single government, legal system, and communication network (railways, telegraph) was primarily for their benefit, it also helped in fostering a sense of common identity among Indians. The shared experience of oppression under a foreign rule created a common platform for political action.

E. Role of Key Events

Certain events served as catalysts for nationalist sentiment. The discriminatory policies of Lord Lytton, such as the Vernacular Press Act (1878) and the Arms Act (1878), were widely condemned. The Ilbert Bill controversy (1883), which sought to allow Indian judges to try Europeans, exposed racial prejudices and united Indians against the government.

II. The Formation of the Indian National Congress (INC)

The Indian National Congress was founded in 1885. It was a landmark event in the history of Indian nationalism, providing a formal platform for educated Indians to voice their grievances and aspirations. Initially, the Congress adopted a moderate approach, seeking reforms within the British framework. However, its objectives and methods evolved over time.

A. Early Phase (1885-1905): The Moderates

The early leaders of the INC, often referred to as Moderates, included Dadabhai Naoroji, Gopal Krishna Gokhale, Surendranath Banerjea, and Pherozeshah Mehta. Their methods involved constitutional agitation, petitions, prayers, and resolutions. They believed in the gradual introduction of self-government and sought reforms in administration, legislative councils, and economic policies. Their key demands included Indian representation in legislative councils, reduction of military expenditure, and separation of judiciary from the executive.

While their achievements in terms of immediate political gains were limited, the Moderates played a crucial role in awakening political consciousness, educating the masses about political rights, and laying the foundation for future political struggles. They exposed the exploitative nature of British rule through their detailed analyses and arguments.

B. The Rise of Extremism (1905 onwards): The Militant Nationalists

By the turn of the 20th century, a new generation of nationalist leaders emerged who were impatient with the slow pace of reforms and the Moderates' methods. They advocated for more assertive forms of struggle, including Swadeshi (use of indigenous goods), Boycott of foreign goods, and passive resistance. Prominent among these leaders were Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Lala Lajpat Rai, Bipin Chandra Pal (collectively known as the 'Lal-Bal-Pal' trio), and Aurobindo Ghose.

The partition of Bengal in 1905, ostensibly for administrative reasons but widely seen as a 'divide and rule' tactic, proved to be a major turning point. It ignited widespread protests, particularly the Swadeshi and Boycott movements, which spread across the country. The Extremists believed in self-reliance and mass mobilization, and their methods aimed at making the administration impossible without the cooperation of the people.

C. Partition of Bengal and Swadeshi Movement (1905-1908)

Lord Curzon's decision to partition Bengal in 1905 was met with fierce opposition. The Swadeshi movement, which started as a protest against the partition, quickly evolved into a broader movement for national self-reliance. It involved boycotting British goods, promoting Indian industries, and advocating for national education. Students, women, and various sections of society participated actively. The movement weakened the British administration in Bengal and demonstrated the power of mass protest.

III. The Era of Mass Mobilization and Gandhian Nationalism

The period after World War I witnessed the emergence of Mahatma Gandhi as the undisputed leader of the Indian national movement. Gandhi transformed the INC from an elite organization into a mass movement, involving millions of Indians from all walks of life. His philosophy of Satyagraha (truth force) and Ahimsa (non-violence) provided a unique and powerful method of resistance.

A. Mahatma Gandhi and His Philosophy

Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, who returned to India from South Africa in 1915, brought with him his experiences of Satyagraha. He believed in the inherent strength of truth and non-violence as tools for political and social change. His philosophy emphasized self-discipline, self-reliance (Swadeshi), and the upliftment of the poor and downtrodden (Sarvodaya). He sought to achieve Swaraj not just as political independence but as self-rule in every village and individual.

B. The Non-Cooperation Movement (1920-1922)

The Non-Cooperation Movement was the first large-scale, nationwide Satyagraha campaign launched by Gandhi. It was a response to several grievances, including the Rowlatt Act, the Jallianwala Bagh massacre (1919), and the Khilafat issue. Indians were asked to boycott government institutions like schools, colleges, courts, and legislative councils, and to give up titles and honors conferred by the British. The movement witnessed unprecedented participation from peasants, workers, students, and women. However, it was abruptly called off by Gandhi following the Chauri Chaura incident (February 1922), where a mob turned violent and set fire to a police station, resulting in the death of 22 policemen.

C. The Civil Disobedience Movement (1930-1934)

The Civil Disobedience Movement, launched with the famous Dandi March (Salt Satyagraha) in March 1930, was another major phase of the struggle. Gandhi and his followers marched from Sabarmati Ashram to Dandi to break the salt law, which symbolized British oppression. The movement involved widespread defiance of laws, boycott of foreign goods, and refusal to pay taxes. It had a significant impact on the British administration and led to increased international attention. Prominent leaders like Jawaharlal Nehru, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, and Maulana Abul Kalam Azad were arrested. The movement was eventually withdrawn in 1934 after Gandhi felt the people were not ready for further sacrifice and the movement had lost its momentum.

D. The Quit India Movement (1942)

During World War II, the Indian demand for independence intensified. In August 1942, the All India Congress Committee passed the 'Quit India' resolution, calling for an immediate end to British rule. Gandhi gave the call "Do or Die," urging people to strive for independence or perish in the attempt. The movement was met with severe repression by the British government, with mass arrests of leaders, including Gandhi, Nehru, and Patel. Despite the crackdown, the movement witnessed widespread acts of defiance, sabotage, and parallel governments in some areas, reflecting the deep-seated desire for freedom.

IV. Towards Independence and Partition

The post-World War II period saw the British government increasingly inclined to grant independence to India, but the question of partition loomed large. Several factors and negotiations led to the eventual independence and division of the country.

A. The Cabinet Mission Plan (1946)

In 1946, the British government sent a Cabinet Mission to India to discuss the transfer of power. The mission proposed a three-tier federal structure with provinces having autonomy, but it failed to resolve the differences between the Congress and the Muslim League, particularly on the issue of Pakistan. The Muslim League, under Muhammad Ali Jinnah, insisted on a separate Muslim state.

B. Mountbatten Plan and Indian Independence Act (1947)

Facing mounting pressure and the inability to maintain control, the British government decided to transfer power. The Viceroy, Lord Mountbatten, proposed a plan for the partition of India, which was accepted by both the Congress and the Muslim League. The Indian Independence Act of 1947 was passed by the British Parliament, granting independence to India and Pakistan on August 15 and August 14, 1947, respectively. The partition led to widespread communal violence and mass migration, a tragic consequence of the struggle for freedom.

C. Partition and its Aftermath

The partition of India resulted in immense human suffering, with millions displaced and thousands killed in communal riots. The division of assets, administrative structures, and the redrawing of boundaries created numerous challenges. Despite the trauma of partition, India emerged as an independent, democratic republic, committed to building a secular and inclusive society.

V. Key Figures and Their Contributions

The Indian freedom struggle was shaped by numerous leaders who dedicated their lives to the cause of independence. While Mahatma Gandhi is revered as the Father of the Nation, many others played pivotal roles.

• Mahatma Gandhi: Architect of mass movements, proponent of Satyagraha and Ahimsa.
• Jawaharlal Nehru: First Prime Minister of India, instrumental in shaping India's foreign policy and socialist ideals.
• Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel: Key figure in integrating princely states into India, known as the 'Iron Man of India'.
• Subhas Chandra Bose: Nationalist leader who advocated for armed struggle, formed the Indian National Army (INA).
• Bhagat Singh: Revolutionary socialist who inspired youth with his commitment to freedom and social justice.
• Maulana Abul Kalam Azad: Prominent Congress leader, scholar, and advocate for Hindu-Muslim unity.
• Lala Lajpat Rai, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal: Leaders of the Extremist faction, advocating for Swaraj and Swadeshi.
• Gopal Krishna Gokhale: Moderate leader, mentor to Gandhi, emphasizing constitutional methods.
• Rani Lakshmibai: A key leader of the 1857 revolt, symbolizing resistance against British rule.
• Mangal Pandey: Sepoy whose actions sparked the 1857 revolt.

VI. Important Years and Events

Memorizing key years and events is crucial for understanding the timeline of the Indian national movement.

Year	Event
1857	First War of Indian Independence (Sepoy Mutiny)
1885	Formation of the Indian National Congress (INC)
1905	Partition of Bengal; Swadeshi Movement begins
1906	Formation of Muslim League
1907	Surat Split (INC session where Moderates and Extremists separate)
1915	Mahatma Gandhi returns to India from South Africa
1919	Rowlatt Act; Jallianwala Bagh Massacre
1920-22	Non-Cooperation Movement
1922	Chauri Chaura Incident; Gandhi suspends Non-Cooperation Movement
1930	Civil Disobedience Movement begins; Dandi March (Salt Satyagraha)
1930-31	First Round Table Conference
1931	Gandhi-Irwin Pact; Second Round Table Conference
1932	Communal Award; Poona Pact
1935	Government of India Act
1939	World War II begins; Congress ministries resign
1940	Lahore Resolution (Demand for Pakistan)
1942	Quit India Movement begins; Cripps Mission
1945	End of World War II; Simla Conference
1946	Cabinet Mission Plan
1947	Mountbatten Plan; Indian Independence Act; Partition of India