TRB BT Assistant - Sidney, Dryden, Johnson, Coleridge, Arnold and Eliot E-Book Study Material

Literary Criticism and Theory

Sidney, Dryden, Johnson, Coleridge, Arnold and Eliot

In the vast landscape of English literary criticism, several towering figures have shaped our understanding of literature, its purpose, and its evaluation. From the Renaissance to the early 20th century, the contributions of Sir Philip Sidney, John Dryden, Samuel Johnson, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Matthew Arnold, and T.S. Eliot are foundational. Each of these critics brought unique perspectives, methodologies, and concerns to the study of literature, leaving an indelible mark on the discipline.

Sir Philip Sidney (1554-1586)

Sir Philip Sidney, a courtier, soldier, and poet of the Elizabethan era, is best known for his defense of poetry, The Defence of Poesie (also known as An Apology for Poetry), written around 1579-1580 and published posthumously in 1595. This work is a seminal piece of English Renaissance literary theory, written in response to the Puritan attacks on poetry, particularly Stephen Gosson's The School of Abuse.

Key Concepts in Sidney's Defence of Poesie

Sidney's defense is comprehensive, addressing the nature of poetry, its purpose, its various forms, and its moral implications. He argues that poetry is not merely frivolous entertainment but a noble art with a profound capacity to teach and delight.

Poetry as Mimesis (Imitation): Sidney views poetry as an art of imitation, a "speaking picture," that imitates not just reality but also the "ideas, or, as the Philoophers call them, the Forms of things." This means poetry can present ideal or perfected versions of reality, going beyond mere factual representation. He contrasts poetry with history, which deals with "what is," and philosophy, which deals with "what should be." Poetry, by combining the two, can show "what may be," offering both instruction and delight.
The Purpose of Poetry: To Teach and Delight: Sidney famously states that the goal of poetry is "to teach and delight." He believes that poetry achieves this by presenting moral truths in an engaging and memorable way. The pleasure derived from poetry makes its lessons more effective. He argues that poetry is "the mother of all knowledge" and the "first light-giver to ignorance."
The Virtues of the Poet: Sidney defends the poet as a creator, a "right poet" who "doth not only show the way, but doth also lead on the child." He emphasizes the poet's imaginative power, his ability to create new worlds and characters, and his role in shaping moral understanding. He argues that the poet is more philosophical than the historian because he deals with universal truths and ideal forms.
The Critic's Role: While defending poetry, Sidney also implicitly defines the role of the critic: to understand the art's principles, to evaluate its execution, and to appreciate its moral and aesthetic value. He criticizes contemporary plays for their poor structure, mixing of genres, and lack of adherence to classical unities, showing a critical engagement with the literature of his time.
Rejection of Puritan Objections: Sidney systematically refutes the Puritan objections against poetry, such as its association with falsehood, its corrupting influence, and its perceived uselessness. He argues that poetry, when properly understood and practiced, is a morally beneficial and intellectually enriching art form.

Sidney's Defence is a passionate and eloquent argument for the value of imaginative literature, establishing a framework for literary appreciation that would influence critics for centuries.

John Dryden (1631-1700)

John Dryden, a dominant figure of the English Neoclassical period, was a playwright, poet, and critic. His critical writings, often found in prefaces to his works and in essays like Of Dramatick Poesie (1668), are characterized by their clarity, balance, and reasoned approach. He championed the principles of reason, order, and decorum associated with Neoclassicism.

Key Concepts in Dryden's Criticism

Dryden's criticism is practical and engaged, focusing on specific literary genres and their rules. He was a key figure in establishing critical standards for English literature.

The Rules of Art: Dryden believed in the importance of established rules and conventions in literature, derived from classical models and refined by French critics like Boileau. He advocated for clarity, coherence, and propriety in writing. However, he was not a rigid classicist; he also recognized the value of genius and originality.
The Debate on Ancient vs. Modern: In Of Dramatick Poesie, Dryden engages in a discussion about the merits of ancient (Greek and Roman) versus modern (English and French) literature. While acknowledging the superiority of the ancients in many respects, he argues for the equal, and in some cases superior, achievements of modern writers, particularly in drama. He defends English playwrights like Shakespeare and Jonson.
The Nature of Tragedy and Comedy: Dryden applied critical principles to specific genres. He discussed the "rules" of tragedy, including the unities of time, place, and action, though he was willing to allow for some flexibility. He also analyzed the nature of comedy, emphasizing wit, character, and social observation.
The Translator's Art: Dryden was also a renowned translator and wrote extensively on the principles of translation. He distinguished between literal translation ("metaphrase") and free translation ("imitation"), advocating for an approach that captures the spirit and genius of the original author while adapting it for the target audience. His preface to Ovid's Epistles and his Translations from Virgil are important texts on this subject.
The Importance of Wit and Judgment: Dryden often spoke of "wit" and "judgment" as essential qualities for both the writer and the critic. Wit, for him, was not just cleverness but a keen perception of resemblances between disparate things, leading to original and insightful expression. Judgment was the ability to apply reason and good sense to discern the value and propriety of literary works.

Dryden's criticism is marked by its balanced perspective, its engagement with contemporary literary debates, and its emphasis on clarity, reason, and the established rules of art, all while acknowledging the power of individual genius.

Samuel Johnson (1709-1784)

Samuel Johnson, often called "Dictionary Johnson," was a central figure of the 18th-century Enlightenment in England. His most significant critical work is the Preface to Shakespeare (1765), a profound analysis of Shakespeare's genius and dramatic art. Johnson's criticism is characterized by its common sense, its moral seriousness, and its deep understanding of human nature.

Key Concepts in Johnson's Criticism

Johnson's approach to criticism is often described as pragmatic and empirical. He valued literature that reflected life truthfully and offered moral guidance.

Shakespeare's Realism and Universality: In his Preface, Johnson defends Shakespeare against the criticisms of his contemporaries, particularly regarding his disregard for the classical unities and his mixture of tragic and comic elements. Johnson argues that Shakespeare's strength lies in his truthful depiction of human nature and universal passions. He believed Shakespeare's characters are "real" because they represent the general human condition rather than specific individuals.
The Purpose of Literature: To Instruct and Entertain: Johnson, like Sidney, believed that literature should have a moral purpose. He stated that "the greatest aim of writing is the happiness of mankind." He advocated for literature that could both entertain and instruct, providing lessons about life, morality, and human behavior.
The Value of Didacticism: Johnson was a proponent of didactic literature, believing that poetry and drama should offer moral lessons. He praised works that explored the complexities of human experience and provided insights into right and wrong.
Rejection of Abstract Rules: While respecting established literary traditions, Johnson was skeptical of overly rigid adherence to abstract rules, especially when they conflicted with common sense or the truthful representation of life. He argued that Shakespeare's deviation from the unities was justified by his success in portraying human passions more effectively.
The Dictionary and Lexicography: Johnson's monumental A Dictionary of the English Language (1755) is itself a work of critical importance. His definitions reveal his understanding of word usage, etymology, and the nuances of language. His approach to lexicography was scholarly and comprehensive, setting a new standard for English dictionaries.
Common Sense and Human Nature: Johnson's criticism is grounded in a deep understanding of human nature and an appeal to common sense. He valued literary works that resonated with the everyday experiences and emotions of people, finding universality in the particular.

Johnson's criticism is characterized by its robust common sense, its moral seriousness, and its profound appreciation for Shakespeare's ability to capture the essence of human life. His essays and preface remain influential for their insights into literary art and its purpose.

Samuel Taylor Coleridge (1772-1834)

Samuel Taylor Coleridge, a central figure of English Romanticism, revolutionized literary criticism with his philosophical depth and his focus on the imaginative faculty. His major critical works include Biographia Literaria (1817), which contains extensive discussions on poetry, imagination, and literary theory. Coleridge sought to understand the creative process and the unique nature of poetic experience.

Key Concepts in Coleridge's Criticism

Coleridge's criticism is marked by its idealism, its psychological insight, and its attempt to bridge philosophy and literary practice.

Imagination: Primary and Fancy: Coleridge's most significant contribution is his distinction between Primary and Secondary Imagination, and Fancy.
- Primary Imagination: This is the living power and prime agent of all human perception. It is the faculty through which we perceive the world and is common to all sentient beings. It is the faculty of "sense" and "living perception."
- Secondary Imagination: This is a more elevated faculty, unique to the poet. It dissolves, diffuses, dissipates, in order to re-create. It is the artist's ability to blend the external world with the internal world of the mind, creating new forms and connections. It works by idealizing and generalizing.
- Fancy: This is a mode of memory, acting without the intensity of emotion. It involves a mechanical association of ideas based on similarity, contiguity, or contrast. Fancy is selective and aggregates; Imagination is creative and fuses. Fancy is more about "arbitrary and fugitive connections."
The Nature of Poetry: "The Best Words in the Best Order": Coleridge famously defined poetry as "the best words in the best order." This seemingly simple definition encompasses a complex idea: poetry is not merely about subject matter but about the careful and skillful arrangement of language to create aesthetic effect and emotional resonance. He also described poetry as "a more general language, from the entrance of passions and imagination."
The Organic Unity of the Poem: Coleridge argued that a great poem possesses "organic unity." This means that all its parts are interconnected and contribute to the whole in a way that is natural and essential, like a living organism. The poem grows from within, rather than being constructed according to external rules.
The Role of the Critic: Coleridge believed the critic's role was to understand the poet's genius and the conditions under which the poem was created. The critic should appreciate the unique qualities of a work and understand its underlying principles, rather than merely judging it against external standards.
Influence of German Idealism: Coleridge's critical theories were heavily influenced by German philosophers like Kant and Schelling, particularly their ideas on aesthetics, the creative mind, and the nature of reality.

Coleridge's exploration of the imagination, his concept of organic unity, and his philosophical approach to literary study profoundly influenced subsequent critical thought, particularly during the Romantic period and beyond.

Matthew Arnold (1822-1888)

Matthew Arnold, a poet and cultural critic of the Victorian era, is known for his emphasis on culture, objectivity, and the moral function of literature. His critical essays, particularly those collected in Essays in Criticism (First Series, 1865; Second Series, 1888), offer a vision of criticism as a dispassionate, intellectual force for cultural improvement.

Key Concepts in Arnold's Criticism

Arnold's criticism is characterized by its clarity, its urbanity, and its concern with the "best that has been thought and said."

The Function of Criticism: "The Best That Has Been Thought and Said": Arnold believed that the primary function of criticism is to "know the best that has been thought and said in the world, and in relation to the subject of which it is a portion, to see that best current as it really is." Criticism should be a disinterested endeavor, free from practical or political aims, seeking to understand and disseminate true and valuable ideas.
"Disinterestedness": Arnold advocated for a disinterested approach to criticism, meaning it should not be tied to any particular party, sect, or interest. The critic should maintain an objective stance, seeking truth for its own sake. This contrasts with criticism that serves political, religious, or commercial agendas.
Culture and Anarchy: In works like Culture and Anarchy (1869), Arnold defined "culture" as "the best that has been thought and said in the world." He saw culture as a force for social and moral betterment, a way to combat the "anarchy" of a society driven by materialism and narrow interests. He believed literature and the humanities were crucial for cultivating this culture.
The Touchstone Method: To evaluate poetry, Arnold proposed the "touchstone method." This involves comparing passages from contemporary poets with famous passages from the greatest poets of the past (like Homer, Shakespeare, and Milton). By comparing the texture, style, and effect, one could judge the quality of the modern work. He stressed that these touchstones should be used not for the subject matter but for the "language and the rhythm."
Poetry as a "Criticism of Life": Arnold famously declared that poetry would eventually replace religion as the source of solace and guidance for humanity. He saw poetry as a "criticism of life," capable of providing moral and spiritual sustenance. However, he also warned that poetry must possess "high seriousness" and a "sound basis" to fulfill this role.
"The Grand Style": Arnold admired a "grand style" in poetry, characterized by dignity, elevation, and a certain noble simplicity. He found this in the works of Homer, Dante, and Milton.

Arnold's critical legacy lies in his elevation of criticism to a high intellectual calling, his emphasis on culture and the civilizing power of literature, and his enduring call for objective, disinterested evaluation of literary works.

T.S. Eliot (1888-1965)

T.S. Eliot, an American-born British poet, playwright, and critic, is one of the most influential literary figures of the 20th century. His critical essays, such as "Tradition and the Individual Talent" (1919) and "Hamlet and His Problems" (1919), fundamentally reshaped modern literary criticism and introduced concepts that continue to be debated.

Key Concepts in Eliot's Criticism

Eliot's criticism is often characterized by its intellectual rigor, its emphasis on impersonality, and its historical perspective.

"Tradition and the Individual Talent": This essay is a cornerstone of modern criticism. Eliot argues that the "individual talent" can only be understood and appreciated in the context of "tradition." Tradition, for Eliot, is not merely adherence to the past but a dynamic relationship between the past and the present. It involves a "simultaneous existence" of all the works of art that have preceded it. The artist must be aware of this tradition and assert his place within it.
Impersonality and the Objective Correlative: Eliot famously advocated for "impersonality" in poetry, arguing that the poet should not express his own emotions but should act as a medium or catalyst. He rejected the Romantic notion of the poet as a unique expressive individual. In "Hamlet and His Problems," he introduced the concept of the "objective correlative": a set of objects, a situation, a chain of events which shall be the formula of that particular emotion such that when the external facts are given, the emotion is immediately evoked. He felt Hamlet lacked an objective correlative for his grief.
The "Dissociation of Sensibility": In "The Metaphysical Poets" (1921), Eliot argued that English poetry experienced a "dissociation of sensibility" around the 17th century, after the work of poets like John Donne. Before this, poets could fuse thought and feeling, intellect and emotion, seamlessly. After the dissociation, poetry became divided, with intellect and emotion often operating separately. He saw this as a decline in the quality of poetic expression.
The Importance of Form and Craft: Eliot placed great emphasis on the craft and form of poetry. He believed that poetry is an art that requires skill, discipline, and a careful attention to language, structure, and technique. He often contrasted the sophisticated craftsmanship of poets like the Metaphysical poets or Dante with what he saw as less disciplined approaches.
Literary History as a Simultaneous Order: Eliot viewed literary history not as a linear progression but as a "simultaneous order" where all works of art, past and present, exist together. The introduction of a new work of art alters the existing order, affecting the relationship of all other works to each other and to the reader.
The Role of the Critic: For Eliot, the critic's role is to illuminate the works of art and to help the reader appreciate their complexity and value. He saw criticism as a vital part of the literary ecosystem, helping to preserve and transmit tradition.

T.S. Eliot's critical theories, with their emphasis on tradition, impersonality, and the objective correlative, profoundly influenced the development of New Criticism and continue to be central to discussions of poetry and literary evaluation in the 20th and 21st centuries.