Sources of the History of Tamil Nadu

Understanding the history of any region requires careful examination of the available sources. For Tamil Nadu, these sources span various categories, providing insights into its past from ancient times to the medieval period. These sources can be broadly classified into archaeological, literary, and foreign accounts.

Archaeological Sources

Archaeological findings offer tangible evidence of past civilizations. Excavations at various sites in Tamil Nadu have unearthed a wealth of material that helps reconstruct its history.

Coins

Coins are invaluable for dating historical periods, understanding economic activities, and identifying rulers. In Tamil Nadu, coins of the Cheras, Cholas, Pandyas, and Pallavas, as well as Roman coins, have been found. These coins, often made of copper, silver, and gold, bear the insignia of the ruling dynasties and sometimes inscriptions in Tamil or Brahmi script, providing crucial information about trade relations and political influence.

Inscriptions

Inscriptions, carved on stone, copper plates, and pottery, are primary sources of historical information. They record land grants, royal decrees, temple donations, and details about social and religious life. Important inscriptions in Tamil Nadu include:

• Hero stones (Nadukal): These memorial stones commemorate warriors who died in battle, often providing details about the warrior, the battle, and the date.
• Temple inscriptions: Found on the walls of temples, these detail the construction of the temple, its endowments, and the socio-religious practices of the time. The Brihadeeswarar Temple inscription at Thanjavur is a prime example, detailing the Chola administration and the temple's vast resources.
• Copper plate grants: These often record land ownership and transfer, particularly significant for understanding the land tenure system and the administrative structure. The Velvikkudi copper plates of the Pandya king Jatila Parantaka Nedunjadaiyan are a famous example, detailing grants to a Brahmin community.

Sculptures and Architecture

The magnificent temples, cave shelters, and sculptures found across Tamil Nadu are significant historical artifacts. They reveal the artistic skills, religious beliefs, and architectural styles of different periods. The Mahabalipuram shore temple, the Kailasanatha temple at Kanchipuram, and the Brihadeeswarar temple at Thanjavur are testaments to the advanced architectural and sculptural achievements of the Pallava and Chola periods, respectively.

Pottery and Other Artifacts

Excavated pottery, tools, beads, and other household items help in understanding the daily life, technological advancements, and cultural practices of the people. The discovery of Black and Red Ware pottery in many ancient sites points to early settlements.

Literary Sources

Literary works, both secular and religious, provide a rich narrative of Tamil history. These texts, written in Tamil and other languages, offer insights into the political events, social structures, economic conditions, and cultural milieu of different eras.

Tamil Literature

• Sangam Literature: This corpus of classical Tamil literature, dating roughly from the 3rd century BCE to the 3rd century CE, is a primary source for understanding the early history of Tamil Nadu. It includes the *Ettuthokai* (Eight Anthologies) and *Pattuppattu* (Ten Idylls). These poems describe the political landscape, social customs, economic activities, and religious practices of the Sangam age. They also provide information about the Chera, Chola, and Pandya kingdoms.
• Epics and Didactic Literature: Works like *Silappadikaram* and *Manimekalai* (often referred to as the twin epics) offer detailed accounts of social life, religious sects, and urban centers during the post-Sangam period. The *Tirukkural*, a treatise on ethics, politics, and love, provides insights into the moral and social values of the time.
• Bhakti Literature: The devotional hymns of the Alvars (Vaishnavism) and Nayanmars (Saivism), composed between the 6th and 9th centuries CE, shed light on the religious revival and the social impact of the Bhakti movement.
• Later Works: Medieval Tamil literature, including commentaries and historical chronicles, continues to provide valuable historical data.

Sanskrit and Prakrit Literature

While Tamil literature is paramount, inscriptions and some literary works in Sanskrit and Prakrit found in Tamil Nadu also contribute to historical understanding, particularly regarding religious and political interactions.

Foreign Accounts

Writings by foreign travelers, traders, and geographers offer an external perspective on the history of Tamil Nadu. These accounts, though sometimes biased, provide corroborative evidence and information not found in indigenous sources.

Greek and Roman Accounts

Writings by authors like Pliny the Elder, Ptolemy, and the author of the *Periplus of the Erythraean Sea* describe the geography, trade, and political entities of South India, including Tamil Nadu, during the early centuries CE. They mention ports like Musiri and mention trade in commodities like pepper, pearls, and textiles.

Chinese Accounts

Chinese travelers and monks, such as Hiuen Tsang (though his visit was primarily to other parts of India, his accounts sometimes touch upon southern kingdoms) and later traders, provided accounts that sometimes corroborate or supplement Indian sources, especially regarding trade and religious interactions.

Jain and Buddhist Texts

Texts from Jain and Buddhist traditions, originating from or found in Tamil Nadu, also contribute to understanding the religious and social history of the region, particularly concerning the spread and influence of these religions.

The Sangam Age and its Culture

The Sangam Age, spanning approximately from the 3rd century BCE to the 3rd century CE, represents a golden era in the history of Tamil Nadu. It is named after the Sangams (literary academies) that were supposedly held under royal patronage in Madurai, where poets and scholars compiled and composed literature. This period is primarily understood through the rich body of Sangam literature.

Political Organization

The Sangam Age witnessed the dominance of three major kingdoms: the Cheras, the Cholas, and the Pandyas. Besides these, numerous smaller chieftains and tribal groups also existed.

• Cheras: Their kingdom was located in the western part of the Tamil country, comprising parts of modern Kerala and Tamil Nadu. They were known for their control over the spice trade and their naval power. Their emblem was the 'Bow and Arrow'.
• Cholas: They ruled the fertile Kaveri delta in the east. Their capital was initially Uraiyur, and later the port city of Puhar (Kaveripattinam) became important. They were renowned for their agriculture and trade. Their emblem was the 'Tiger'.
• Pandyas: Their kingdom was in the southern part of Tamil Nadu, with their capital at Madurai. They were famous for their pearl fisheries and controlled trade routes in the south. Their emblem was the 'Fish'.

Warfare was common among these kingdoms and chieftains, often for resources, territory, or prestige. The literature describes various types of battles and the valor of warriors.

Economy and Trade

The economy of the Sangam Age was primarily agrarian, with the Kaveri delta being a particularly fertile region. Agriculture was well-developed, with irrigation systems supporting the cultivation of rice, millets, and other crops.

• Crafts and Industries: Various crafts flourished, including weaving (cotton and silk), metalworking, pottery, carpentry, and jewelry making.
• Trade: Both internal and external trade were significant. Internal trade involved the exchange of agricultural produce and crafts. External trade, especially maritime trade, was extensive. Tamil ports like Puhar, Tondi, Musiri, and Korkai were bustling centers. They traded with regions like Sri Lanka, Southeast Asia, and particularly the Roman Empire. Commodities exported included spices (pepper, cardamom), pearls, textiles, ivory, and precious stones. Roman coins found in Tamil Nadu attest to this lucrative trade.

Social Life and Customs

Sangam literature provides vivid descriptions of the social structure and customs of the people.

• Social Stratification: Society was broadly divided into different groups based on occupation. While there were no rigid castes as seen later, social distinctions existed. Poets, scholars, warriors, farmers, artisans, and traders formed distinct occupational groups.
• Family and Marriage: The family was the basic unit of society. Marriage was prevalent, and poems describe different forms of unions, including love marriages and arranged marriages.
• Food and Dress: The staple diet consisted of rice, grains, fruits, vegetables, and fish. People wore cotton and silk garments, often simple and elegant.
• Entertainment: Music, dance, festivals, and storytelling were popular forms of entertainment. Cockfights and wrestling were also common.

Religion and Beliefs

The religious landscape of the Sangam Age was diverse, with a blend of indigenous beliefs and influences from other traditions.

• Indigenous Deities: Worship of nature gods like Indra, Surya (Sun), and Varuna was common. Murugan (also known as Skanda or Kartikeya) was a very popular deity, especially in the hilly regions, and was associated with war and fertility. The worship of hero stones (Nadukal) to commemorate the dead, especially warriors, was a significant practice.
• Rituals: Various rituals and sacrifices were performed. Festivals played an important role in community life.
• Influence of Jainism and Buddhism: While not as dominant as later, Jainism and Buddhism had made inroads into Tamil society by this period, influencing certain sections of the population and contributing to the intellectual and philosophical discourse.

Culture and Art

The Sangam Age was a period of flourishing arts and literature.

• Literature: As mentioned, Sangam literature is the pinnacle of this age, characterized by its aesthetic beauty, emotional depth, and realistic portrayal of life. The division of poems into *Akam* (inner life, love) and *Puram* (outer life, war, public affairs) reflects a sophisticated literary tradition.
• Music and Dance: Music and dance were integral parts of life, performed during religious ceremonies, festivals, and royal courts.
• Poetry: Poetry was highly valued, and poets held respected positions in society.

The Pallava Dynasty

The Pallavas were a significant South Indian dynasty that ruled parts of Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, and Karnataka from the 3rd to the 9th century CE. They succeeded the Satavahanas and were contemporaries of the Chalukyas of Badami. The Pallavas are renowned for their contributions to art, architecture, literature, and administration. Kanchipuram served as their capital.

Pallava Rulers

The Pallava dynasty had a long line of rulers, but some of the prominent ones include:

• Bhaṭa Varma (Vishnugopa): Generally considered the first important ruler, mentioned in the Allahabad pillar inscription of Samudragupta.
• Mahendravarman I (c. 600-630 CE): A versatile ruler, a scholar, a poet, and an architect. He patronized arts and initiated rock-cut architecture. His famous work is the play *Mattavilasa Prahasana*.
• Narasimhavarman I (Mamalla) (c. 630-668 CE): The greatest Pallava king, who defeated Pulakesin II of the Chalukyas. He is credited with the construction of the monolithic Rathas and the Shore Temple at Mahabalipuram (Mamallapuram, named after him). The Chinese traveler Hiuen Tsang visited his kingdom during his reign.
• Rajasimha (Narasimhavarman II) (c. 690-725 CE): Known for his patronage of art and architecture. He commissioned the Kailasanatha Temple at Kanchipuram and the Talagirisvara Temple at Panamalai.
• Nandivarman II (c. 731-796 CE): His reign saw the flourishing of temple architecture, and he is associated with the Vaikuntha Perumal Temple at Kanchipuram.

Social Developments under Pallavas

Pallava society exhibited several characteristics typical of the early medieval period in South India.

• Varnashrama System: The *Varnashrama* system, though not as rigid as in North India, was present. Brahmins held a privileged position, often serving as priests, scholars, and administrators.
• Growth of Temples: Temples became important socio-economic and religious centers. They provided employment, land, and resources, influencing the social fabric. The *Devadasi* system, where women were dedicated to temple service, began to emerge.
• Bhakti Movement: The rise of the Bhakti movement, led by the Alvars and Nayanmars, had a profound impact on society. The hymns sung in Tamil popularized devotional practices and influenced religious life across different social strata.
• Guilds and Corporations: Various guilds (like artisans, merchants) and local assemblies played a role in economic and social governance.
• Education: Centers of learning, such as the Ghantashala and Vaikunta Perumal Temple at Kanchipuram, flourished, attracting scholars and students. Kanchipuram was a renowned center for Buddhist learning as well.

Economic Developments under Pallavas

The Pallava economy was based on agriculture, trade, and crafts, supported by efficient administration.

• Agriculture: It remained the backbone of the economy. Irrigation systems, including tanks and canals, were developed and maintained. Land grants to temples and Brahmins were common, contributing to agricultural expansion.
• Trade and Commerce: The Pallavas promoted both inland and overseas trade. Kanchipuram was an important commercial center. Ports like Mamallapuram (Mahabalipuram) facilitated trade with Southeast Asia and China. Commodities traded included textiles, spices, precious stones, and grains.
• Crafts: Skilled artisans produced exquisite items, contributing to the economic prosperity. Goldsmiths, weavers, sculptors, and masons were highly valued.
• Currency: Various coins, including gold (Kasu) and silver coins, were in circulation, indicating a monetized economy.

Religious Developments under Pallavas

The Pallava period witnessed significant developments in religious practices and patronage.

• Patronage of Hinduism: While the Pallavas showed tolerance towards other religions, they were primarily patrons of Hinduism, especially Shaivism and Vaishnavism. They built numerous magnificent temples dedicated to Shiva and Vishnu.
• Rock-cut Architecture: Mahendravarman I initiated rock-cut temples, a distinctive feature of Pallava art. These caves were carved out of hillsides.
• Structural Temples: Narasimhavarman I and Rajasimha were pioneers of structural temple architecture. The monolithic Rathas and Shore Temple at Mahabalipuram, and the Kailasanatha Temple at Kanchipuram, are prime examples of their architectural prowess.
• Buddhism and Jainism: Although Hinduism gained prominence, Buddhism and Jainism continued to exist and were supported by certain sections of the population and rulers. Hiuen Tsang mentions numerous Buddhist monasteries in Kanchipuram.

Cultural Developments under Pallavas

The Pallava era was a period of great cultural efflorescence, marked by advancements in art, literature, and education.

• Architecture: The Pallavas are most famous for their contribution to Dravidian architecture. They evolved from rock-cut caves to monolithic structures and finally to grand structural temples. Their architectural style influenced subsequent dynasties like the Cholas.
• Sculpture: Pallava sculptures are known for their grace, elegance, and fine finish. The relief sculptures at Mahabalipuram, depicting scenes from mythology and court life, are particularly noteworthy.
• Literature: Pallava rulers were scholars and patrons of learning. Mahendravarman I wrote the Sanskrit play *Mattavilasa Prahasana*. Bharavi, the author of *Kiratarjuniya*, and Dandin, a Sanskrit prose writer, are believed to have lived in the Pallava court. Tamil literature also progressed, with the Nayanmars and Alvars composing devotional hymns.
• Education: Kanchipuram, the Pallava capital, was a renowned center of education, attracting scholars and students from far and wide. It was a hub for Vedic studies, Buddhist philosophy, and grammar.

The Imperial Cholas and their Administration

The Imperial Cholas rose to prominence in the 9th century CE, succeeding the Pallavas and establishing a vast empire that dominated South India and extended its influence into Southeast Asia. Their reign, particularly from the 10th to the 12th centuries CE, is considered a period of administrative excellence, economic prosperity, and cultural advancement.

Prominent Chola Rulers

Several rulers contributed to the Chola empire's rise and consolidation:

• Vijayalaya (c. 850-870 CE): Considered the founder of the Chola dynasty. He captured Thanjavur from the Muttaraiyars and established his authority.
• Aditya I (c. 870-907 CE): Expanded the Chola territory by defeating the last Pandya ruler and the Pallava king Aparajita.
• Parantaka I (c. 907-955 CE): Extended Chola rule into Andhra Pradesh and achieved a significant victory at Takkolam (though he suffered a defeat later against the Rashtrakutas). He also built numerous Shiva temples.
• Rajaraja I (Arumolivarman) (c. 985-1014 CE): The greatest of the Chola kings. He laid the foundation for the imperial Chola power. He conquered parts of Sri Lanka, the Maldives, and repelled invasions from the Cheras and Pandyas. He commissioned the magnificent Brihadeeswarar Temple at Thanjavur.
• Rajendra I (c. 1014-1044 CE): Son of Rajaraja I. He further expanded the empire, launching a famous expedition to North India, reaching the Ganges River. He also conducted naval expeditions against the Srivijaya Empire in Southeast Asia. His capital was Gangaikonda Cholapuram.
• Later Rulers: Virarajendra, Kulottunga I, and others continued to maintain the empire, though its dominance gradually waned over time.

Chola Administration

The Chola administration was highly organized, efficient, and decentralized, with a strong emphasis on local self-governance.

• Central Administration: The king was the head of the state, assisted by a council of ministers. The administration was divided into departments, with officials overseeing revenue, justice, military, and public works. The royal court was a center for administrative and judicial activities.
• Provincial Administration: The empire was divided into provinces called *Mandalam*. Each *Mandalam* was further divided into districts (*Kottam* or *Valanadu*). Governors, often princes or trusted officials, administered these provinces.
• Local Self-Government: This is the most remarkable feature of Chola administration. Villages were the basic units of administration and enjoyed a high degree of autonomy.
• Urban Administration: Towns and cities were administered by assemblies called *Sabhas* or *Nigama*.
• Village Assemblies: Villages were managed by assemblies of their residents. Two prominent types of village assemblies were:
  • Ur: A general assembly of all villagers.
  • Sabha: An assembly of elders or prominent residents, particularly in Brahmanical villages (*Brahmadeya*).

These assemblies managed local affairs, including land revenue collection, maintenance of temples, irrigation works, and justice. They met regularly, maintained records, and collected taxes. Membership in these assemblies was often based on property ownership and literacy.

The Cholas also established a system of committees (*Variyams*) within these assemblies to look after specific functions like the garden committee, tank committee, and gold committee.

Chola Administration - Key Terms

Mandalam: Province
Kottam / Valanadu: District
Ur: General Village Assembly
Sabha: Assembly of Elders (especially in Brahmadeya villages)
Variyam: Committee within an assembly
Perundaram / Siruthandam: High and low officials respectively.

• Revenue System: Land revenue was the primary source of income. The Cholas conducted regular land surveys to determine the productivity of land and fix tax rates. Taxes were collected in cash or kind. Other sources of revenue included tolls, customs duties, and fines from judicial cases.
• Judicial System: Justice was administered at various levels, from village assemblies to the king's court. Punishments could be severe, including fines, confiscation of property, or imprisonment.
• Military: The Cholas maintained a strong standing army, including infantry, cavalry, and a powerful navy. Their navy played a crucial role in their overseas conquests and trade protection.

Social Life under the Cholas

Chola society was characterized by a well-defined social hierarchy and religious devotion.

• Social Hierarchy: Society was stratified, with Brahmins and Kshatriyas at the top, followed by merchants, artisans, and agricultural laborers. The influence of Brahmins grew significantly due to land grants and temple patronage.
• Role of Temples: Temples were not just religious centers but also important social and economic institutions. They provided education, medical aid, and employment. Festivals celebrated in temples were major social gatherings.
• Status of Women: While women were generally expected to manage the household, some women from royal families and affluent sections received education and participated in public life. The *Devadasi* system continued, with women dedicated to temple service.
• Education: Education was imparted through *Vedas Pathashalas* attached to temples and *Ghatikas* (colleges). Literary and religious texts were central to the curriculum.
• Entertainment: Music, dance, drama, and festivals were popular forms of entertainment. Wrestling and other physical activities were also common.

Religion and Culture under the Cholas

The Chola period was a vibrant era for Hinduism, particularly Shaivism, and saw significant developments in art, architecture, and literature.

• Patronage of Hinduism: The Cholas were devout Hindus and lavishly patronized temples. They built numerous grand temples, the most famous being the Brihadeeswarar Temple at Thanjavur and the Gangaikonda Cholapuram temple.
• Temple Architecture: Chola architecture is known for its massive scale, intricate carvings, and imposing *Vimanas* (towers). The Brihadeeswarar Temple is a masterpiece of Dravidian architecture, with its towering *Vimana* and intricately carved sculptures.
• Sculpture: Chola bronze sculptures are world-renowned for their exquisite craftsmanship and artistic perfection. The Nataraja bronze, depicting Shiva as the cosmic dancer, is a classic example of Chola metalwork.
• Literature: The Chola period saw the production of significant Tamil literature. The *Periya Puranam* by Sekkilar, which narrates the lives of the Nayanmars, is a major Shaivite work. Kambar's *Kambaramayanam* is a monumental Tamil epic.
• Learning: The Chola court patronized scholars, and centers of learning flourished. Tamil language and literature received royal patronage.
• Buddhism and Jainism: While Hinduism dominated, Buddhism and Jainism continued to exist, though their influence gradually declined.

Chola Overseas Expansion

The Cholas were a formidable naval power. Their navy was instrumental in:

• Conquering parts of Sri Lanka and the Maldives.
• Launching expeditions against the Srivijaya Empire (modern Indonesia and Malaysia) to protect trade routes and assert dominance.
• Facilitating extensive maritime trade with Southeast Asia, China, and the Middle East.

This overseas expansion and trade brought immense wealth and prestige to the Chola empire.