The Age of Dryden (1660-1700)

The Age of Dryden, also known as the Restoration Age, marks a significant period in English literature, spanning from the re-establishment of the monarchy in 1660 to the turn of the century. This era witnessed a dramatic shift in political, social, and literary landscapes, influenced by the preceding Civil War and the subsequent return of King Charles II. Literature during this time reflected the prevailing spirit of the age – one of order, reason, wit, and a keen observation of human nature, often with a satirical edge.

Historical Context: The Restoration

The Restoration of the monarchy in 1660, following the Puritanical rule of Oliver Cromwell, brought about a significant change in the cultural and intellectual climate of England. King Charles II, who had been in exile, returned with his court, reintroducing a more relaxed and pleasure-seeking atmosphere. This period saw a reaction against the strict moral codes of the Commonwealth. The court became the center of fashion, patronage, and literary trends.

The political climate was characterized by a complex interplay of forces, including the rise of political parties (Whigs and Tories), religious tensions, and the growing influence of science. The Great Plague of 1665 and the Great Fire of London in 1666 were catastrophic events that reshaped the city and left a lasting impact on the collective consciousness, often reflected in literature. The Glorious Revolution of 1688, which saw the deposition of James II and the accession of William and Mary, further stabilized the political scene and ushered in an era of relative peace and prosperity, which had a calming effect on literary expression, fostering greater clarity and order.

The Rise of Neoclassicism

The Age of Dryden is predominantly associated with the literary movement known as Neoclassicism. This movement drew inspiration from the classical literature of ancient Greece and Rome, emphasizing reason, order, balance, clarity, and restraint. Neoclassical writers sought to emulate the formal perfection and rational approach of classical authors. Key characteristics include:

• Emphasis on Reason and Logic: Literature was expected to be logical and intellectually stimulating, rather than overly emotional or imaginative.
• Adherence to Rules and Forms: Writers often followed established literary forms and rules, such as the classical unities in drama (time, place, and action).
• Imitation of Classical Models: Ancient Greek and Roman poets and playwrights were seen as supreme models to be imitated.
• Didactic Purpose: Literature was often intended to instruct and moralize, though this was frequently achieved through satire and wit.
• Focus on Society and Human Nature: The concerns of this age were largely social and human, exploring the behavior and motivations of people within society.

John Dryden: The Dominant Figure

John Dryden (1631-1700) was the most prominent literary figure of this age, earning him the title "Father of English Criticism" and "Master of the Heroic Couplet." His influence extended across poetry, drama, and criticism, shaping the literary tastes and standards of his time. Dryden's work exemplifies the Neoclassical ideals of order, reason, and polished style.

Dryden's Poetry

Dryden's poetry is characterized by its intellectual depth, formal elegance, and often satirical or argumentative nature. He mastered the heroic couplet, a pair of rhyming iambic pentameter lines, which became the dominant verse form for serious poetry during this period.

• Heroic Stanzas (1658): Written to commemorate the death of Oliver Cromwell, this poem shows Dryden's early skill in composing in heroic couplets, though it was later rewritten to praise Charles II.
• Astraea Redux (1667): This poem celebrates the restoration of Charles II to the throne, presenting the king as a figure of order and justice returning to a chaotic realm. It uses the heroic couplet effectively to convey a sense of grandeur and ceremony.
• Annus Mirabilis (1667): Written in quatrains, this poem recounts the "wonderful year" of 1666, detailing the Dutch naval wars and the Great Fire of London. It demonstrates Dryden's ability to handle grand themes with vivid imagery and a strong narrative flow.
• Mac Flecknoe (1682): A masterful satirical poem, Mac Flecknoe attacks Thomas Shadwell, a rival playwright, depicting him as an unworthy successor to the decaying throne of nonsense. This poem is a prime example of Dryden's wit and skill in political satire, establishing a benchmark for the genre.
• Religio Laici (1682): A philosophical and religious poem exploring Dryden's own religious doubts and eventual adherence to Anglicanism. It reflects the intellectual debates of the era regarding faith and reason.
• The Hind and the Panther (1687): This allegorical poem, written after Dryden's conversion to Catholicism, defends the Catholic faith. The Catholic Church is represented by the white Hind, and the Church of England by the Panther, with other denominations depicted as various beasts.

Dryden's Drama

Dryden was a leading figure in the development of Restoration drama, which was characterized by its wit, sophisticated dialogue, and often scandalous themes. He championed the heroic play, a genre that featured grand plots, noble characters, and often the use of rhyming couplets.

• The Wild Gallant (1663): Dryden's first comedy, which was not very successful.
• The Indian Emperor (1665): A heroic tragedy that established Dryden's reputation as a playwright.
• Secret Love (1668): A comedy that blended serious and comic elements.
• Marriage-à-la-Mode (1672): A successful comedy of manners, exploring themes of love, marriage, and social conventions with sharp wit.
• All for Love (1677): Considered Dryden's masterpiece in tragedy, it is a retelling of Shakespeare's Antony and Cleopatra. Dryden consciously departed from Shakespeare's romanticism, adhering more closely to the Neoclassical unities and focusing on the psychological drama of the protagonists. He famously stated that he preferred his own play to Shakespeare's, as it was more regular.
• All Mistaken, or the History of Aureng-Zebe (1675): Another heroic play.

Dryden also wrote prefaces and essays for his plays, which laid the groundwork for English literary criticism. His critical writings, such as the "Essay of Dramatic Poesy" (1668), provided theoretical justification for Neoclassical principles and engaged in important debates about dramatic form, language, and the merits of English versus classical literature.

Other Notable Writers and Genres

Poetry

While Dryden dominated the poetic landscape, other poets contributed significantly.

• Samuel Butler (1612-1680): Known for his satirical epic poem Hudibras (published in three parts between 1663 and 1678). This mock-heroic poem satirized the Puritans and their hypocrisies with brilliant wit and inventive language. Its complex rhyme scheme and vocabulary made it challenging but highly admired.
• John Milton (1608-1674): Though his major works like Paradise Lost were published earlier (1667), Milton's epic poem, a masterpiece of English literature, continued to be read and debated throughout the Age of Dryden. It represented a different tradition – that of the grand, imaginative epic – which stood in contrast to the prevailing Neoclassical emphasis on reason and order. Milton's work, with its biblical themes and complex allegorical structure, was a towering achievement that influenced subsequent generations.
• John Bunyan (1628-1688): A prominent figure in religious literature, Bunyan was a Baptist preacher whose works were deeply imbued with Puritan theology. His most famous work, The Pilgrim's Progress (Part 1, 1678; Part 2, 1684), is an allegorical novel that recounts the journey of Christian from the City of Destruction to the Celestial City. It is considered one of the most important works of English prose, remarkable for its vivid imagery, simple yet powerful language, and profound spiritual message.

Drama

The Restoration theatre experienced a revival after the Puritanical closure of playhouses. New theatres were built, and female actors were introduced on stage for the first time, replacing boy actors. The drama of this period, particularly comedy, reflected the sophisticated, often cynical, and pleasure-seeking atmosphere of the Restoration court.

• William Wycherley (c. 1640-1715): A master of the comedy of manners, Wycherley's plays are known for their sharp wit, cynical portrayal of aristocratic society, and frank depiction of sexual intrigue. His most famous works include The Country Wife (1675) and The Plain Dealer (1676). His plays often exposed the hypocrisy and corruption beneath the polished surface of Restoration society.
• William Congreve (1670-1729): Though his career extended beyond the Age of Dryden, Congreve's early works, such as The Old Bachelor (1693) and The Double Dealer (1693), were significant. His masterpiece, The Way of the World (1700), is considered the pinnacle of the comedy of manners, celebrated for its intricate plot, brilliant dialogue, and sophisticated exploration of love and marriage.
• Aphra Behn (c. 1640-1689): A pioneering female writer, Aphra Behn was one of the first English women to earn a living by her writing. She wrote novels, poetry, and plays, including The Rover (1677), a lively comedy that challenged conventional morality and showcased her bold style and adventurous spirit. Her work often explored themes of female agency and sexuality with remarkable frankness for the time.

Prose and Non-Fiction

The development of prose was significantly influenced by the Royal Society, founded in 1660. The society promoted a clear, precise, and scientific style of writing, which had a ripple effect on general prose.

• Sir Isaac Newton (1643-1727): His seminal work, Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica (Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy), published in 1687, revolutionized physics and astronomy. Written in Latin, its clear and logical presentation of complex scientific ideas exemplified the new emphasis on reason and empirical observation.
• John Locke (1632-1704): A highly influential philosopher, Locke's major works, Two Treatises of Government (1689) and An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690), laid the foundations for Enlightenment thought. His emphasis on empiricism, natural rights, and the social contract had a profound impact on political philosophy and epistemology. His prose style was characterized by its clarity and systematic argument.
• Thomas Shadwell (c. 1642-1692): A playwright and poet laureate, Shadwell was a contemporary and rival of Dryden. His comedies, such as The Squire of Alsatia (1688), focused on middle-class life and often featured a more boisterous and less refined humor than Congreve or Wycherley. He was satirized by Dryden in Mac Flecknoe.

Key Literary Themes and Characteristics

The literature of the Age of Dryden is marked by several recurring themes and stylistic features that reflect the spirit of the Restoration:

• Order and Reason: A strong preference for logic, clarity, and structure over unrestrained imagination. This is evident in the formal verse of Dryden and the structured plots of Neoclassical drama.
• Satire and Wit: A pervasive use of satire to critique societal follies, hypocrisy, and political corruption. Wit, defined as intelligent and sharp humor, was highly valued in both poetry and drama.
• Realism and Social Observation: A focus on contemporary society, manners, and human behavior, often depicted with a cynical or detached eye. The comedy of manners, in particular, excelled at portraying the intricacies of social life.
• Didacticism: While not always overt, there was an underlying intention to instruct or moralize, often achieved through satire or the portrayal of consequences.
• Heroism and Grandeur: In tragedy and heroic poetry, there was an emphasis on noble characters, grand passions (though often restrained by reason), and elevated language.
• Religious and Political Debate: The literature often engaged with the significant religious and political controversies of the time, reflecting the turbulent shifts in power and belief.

The Legacy of the Age of Dryden

The Age of Dryden laid critical foundations for the development of English literature. John Dryden, in particular, established standards for poetic diction, dramatic structure, and literary criticism that would influence generations. The Neoclassical emphasis on reason and form paved the way for the Enlightenment. The sophisticated wit and social commentary of Restoration comedy continued to shape dramatic traditions. Furthermore, the prose style developed during this period, influenced by science and philosophy, contributed to the evolution of clear and effective non-fiction writing. The age fostered a sense of national literary identity, marked by a confidence in English as a language capable of expressing complex thought and elegant artistry.