The Age of Johnson

The Age of Johnson, also known as the Neoclassical Period or the Age of Enlightenment, spans roughly from 1750 to 1798. This era is characterized by a strong emphasis on reason, logic, and order, drawing inspiration from classical Greek and Roman literature and philosophy. It was a period of significant social, political, and intellectual change, marked by the rise of science, the questioning of traditional authority, and the development of new literary forms. Samuel Johnson, a towering literary figure of the time, lent his name and influence to this period, embodying its intellectual spirit and critical acumen.

Context: The Enlightenment and Neoclassicism

The Age of Johnson is deeply intertwined with the broader European movement known as the Enlightenment. This intellectual revolution championed reason, empiricism, and individualism. Thinkers like John Locke, Isaac Newton, and Voltaire profoundly influenced the era's worldview. In literature, this translated into Neoclassicism, a movement that sought to emulate the perceived perfection of ancient Greek and Roman art and literature. This meant a preference for balance, restraint, clarity, and decorum in writing. Writers aimed for universality, focusing on general human nature rather than individual eccentricity. Satire, didacticism, and a formal, often heroic, couplet were popular literary tools.

Key Characteristics of the Age of Johnson

Several defining features mark the literature and thought of this period:

• Emphasis on Reason and Logic: The prevailing belief was that human beings could understand the world and improve society through rational thought. This led to a focus on clarity, order, and systematic approaches in writing and philosophy.
• Order and Restraint: Neoclassical writers valued control over emotion and imagination. They preferred formal structures, adherence to rules, and a sense of decorum. Spontaneity and excessive individualism were often viewed with suspicion.
• Didacticism: Literature was often seen as having a moral purpose. Writers aimed to instruct their readers, to teach them about virtue, reason, and proper conduct.
• Satire: As a means of social commentary and moral correction, satire flourished. Writers used wit, irony, and ridicule to expose and criticize the follies and vices of individuals and society.
• Interest in the Universal: The focus was on what was common to all humanity, rather than unique or personal experiences. Writers explored general truths about human nature and society.
• Formal Language and Style: A polished, elevated, and often ornate style was favored. The heroic couplet (a pair of rhyming iambic pentameter lines) was a dominant poetic form, providing a sense of balance and closure.
• Rise of the Novel: While poetry and drama were important, the novel began to gain prominence as a literary form, offering a new way to explore individual characters and social realities.

Major Writers and Their Contributions

The Age of Johnson was populated by a constellation of brilliant writers, each leaving an indelible mark on English literature.

Samuel Johnson (1709-1784)

The central figure of the era, Samuel Johnson was a poet, essayist, critic, lexicographer, and dramatist. His influence was immense, shaping literary tastes and critical standards.

• A Dictionary of the English Language (1755): This monumental work was a landmark achievement, standardizing English spelling and definition. It took Johnson nine years to complete and remains a testament to his linguistic scholarship and wit.
• The Lives of the Poets (1779-1781): A collection of biographical and critical essays on English poets from Milton to Gray, this work is a cornerstone of English literary criticism. Johnson's judgments, though sometimes biased, are insightful and eloquently argued.
• Essays: Johnson contributed regularly to periodicals like The Rambler and The Idler, offering moral reflections, social commentary, and literary criticism in a dignified, often aphoristic style.
• Poetry: His notable poems include "The Vanity of Human Wishes" (1749), a moralistic imitation of Juvenal's tenth satire, and "London" (1738).

Oliver Goldsmith (c. 1728-1774)

Goldsmith was a versatile writer, excelling in poetry, drama, novels, and essays. His work often displays a warmth and humanity that contrasts with some of the more austere aspects of Neoclassicism.

• The Vicar of Wakefield (1766): This sentimental novel, despite its sometimes improbable plot, was widely popular and influential. It portrays a virtuous clergyman and his family facing various misfortunes with Christian fortitude.
• The Deserted Village (1770): A poignant poem lamenting the social and economic changes that were displacing rural populations. It captures a nostalgic view of village life and criticizes the growth of industry and luxury.
• Plays: His comedy She Stoops to Conquer (1773) is a masterpiece of the period, celebrated for its lively characters and humorous situations, often seen as a precursor to sentimental comedy but with genuine wit.

Richard Brinsley Sheridan (1751-1816)

Sheridan was primarily a playwright, celebrated for his witty and sophisticated comedies of manners.

• The Rivals (1775): A brilliant comedy of manners, known for its sharp dialogue, memorable characters (like Mrs. Malaprop, who gave us the term "malapropism"), and intricate plot.
• The School for Scandal (1777): Considered one of the greatest English comedies, this play satirizes the hypocrisy and gossip of aristocratic society with unparalleled wit and elegance.

Edmund Burke (1729-1797)

Though primarily a statesman and political theorist, Edmund Burke was also a master of prose, whose speeches and writings profoundly influenced political thought.

• Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790): This influential work is a powerful critique of the French Revolution, arguing for tradition, gradual reform, and the dangers of radical change. It stands as a key text of conservative thought.

Laurence Sterne (1713-1768)

Sterne's work represents a departure from strict Neoclassical norms, embracing a more experimental and subjective style.

• Tristram Shandy (1759-1767): This highly unconventional novel is famous for its digressions, typographical experiments, and exploration of consciousness and the nature of time. It is a precursor to modernist fiction.
• A Sentimental Journey Through France and Italy (1768): A travelogue infused with emotion and subjective experience, focusing on the "sentimental" responses of the narrator to his surroundings.

Literary Forms and Developments

The Age of Johnson saw significant developments in various literary genres.

Poetry

Poetry in this era often adhered to Neoclassical ideals of form, balance, and wit. The heroic couplet remained a dominant form, favored for its epigrammatic potential and sense of order. Poets like Alexander Pope, though slightly earlier, set the standard for this style. Later poets continued this tradition, but there were also signs of a burgeoning Romantic sensibility.

• Didactic and Satirical Poetry: Many poems aimed to instruct or to satirize societal flaws. Samuel Johnson's "The Vanity of Human Wishes" is a prime example.
• Odes and Elegies: Thomas Gray, though bridging periods, wrote highly regarded odes and his "Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard" (1751) is a significant work that explores themes of mortality and social status with a melancholic tone, hinting at future Romantic themes.
• Rise of the "Graveyard School": Poets like Edward Young and Robert Blair explored themes of death, mortality, and the afterlife, often in melancholic and reflective moods, paving the way for Romantic introspection.

Drama

Comedy of manners reached its zenith with Sheridan's brilliant plays, which satirized the social conventions and hypocrisies of the upper classes. These plays are characterized by sparkling dialogue, intricate plots, and memorable characters. While comedy thrived, tragedy generally became less prominent than in earlier periods, with playwrights often opting for sentimental or domestic dramas.

The Novel

The novel truly came into its own during this period. It evolved from earlier forms into a more complex and varied genre.

• Sentimental Novel: Works like Goldsmith's The Vicar of Wakefield focused on evoking emotional responses and exploring themes of virtue and sensibility.
• Epistolary Novel: Novels written in the form of letters, such as Samuel Richardson's earlier works, continued to be popular, offering an intimate perspective on characters' lives.
• Gothic Novel: Towards the end of the period, the Gothic novel emerged, characterized by mystery, horror, and supernatural elements. Horace Walpole's The Castle of Otranto (1764) is considered the first Gothic novel.
• Satirical Novel: Tobias Smollett, and later Henry Fielding (slightly earlier), used the novel form for sharp social satire.
• Experimental Novel: Laurence Sterne's Tristram Shandy pushed the boundaries of the form, experimenting with narrative structure and style.

Essay and Criticism

The essay remained a vital form for discussing philosophical, social, and literary issues. Johnson's contributions to The Rambler and The Idler are prime examples of the period's intellectual engagement. Literary criticism also flourished, with Johnson's Lives of the Poets being a seminal work, establishing critical standards and biographical approaches.

Transition to Romanticism

While the Age of Johnson is defined by Neoclassicism, its later years witnessed the emergence of sentiments and styles that would lead to the Romantic Movement.

• Emphasis on Emotion and Individualism: Writers like Laurence Sterne and Thomas Gray began to explore subjective experience, emotion, and the individual's relationship with nature, which were central tenets of Romanticism.
• Interest in the Past and the Exotic: A growing fascination with medievalism, folk culture, and the exotic also foreshadowed Romantic interests.
• Nature Poetry: Poets like James Thomson (earlier) and Oliver Goldsmith began to write more descriptive and appreciative poems about nature, moving away from purely allegorical or classical treatments.
• The "Graveyard School" poets explored themes of melancholy and mortality in a way that resonated with later Romantic sensibilities.

The Age of Johnson, therefore, represents a pivotal moment in English literary history. It was an era of intellectual rigor, social commentary, and formal mastery, epitomized by Samuel Johnson himself. Yet, within its structured framework, the seeds of a new literary revolution—Romanticism—were already being sown, making it a period of both culmination and transition.