The Age of Milton

Introduction to the Age of Milton

The Age of Milton, roughly spanning the 17th century, is a pivotal period in English literary history. It is characterized by intense political and religious upheaval, culminating in the English Civil War and the Commonwealth period. This era produced some of the most significant poets and prose writers in English, with John Milton standing as its towering figure. The literature reflects the profound social, political, and theological debates of the time, moving away from the Renaissance ideals towards a more complex and often somber worldview.

This period is often subdivided, but its core is defined by the intellectual and artistic ferment preceding, during, and immediately after the Interregnum (1649-1660). The influence of classical literature remained strong, but it was increasingly filtered through the lens of Christian theology and contemporary political realities. The language itself was evolving, becoming more robust and capable of expressing intricate philosophical and religious arguments.

Historical Context: A Turbulent Century

The 17th century in England was anything but peaceful. It began with the Stuart monarchs, James I and Charles I, grappling with Parliament over power and religious policy. The tension escalated, leading to the English Civil War (1642-1651). The war resulted in the execution of Charles I in 1649 and the establishment of a republic, the Commonwealth, led first by Oliver Cromwell. This radical experiment in governance ended with the Restoration of the monarchy in 1660 under Charles II.

These political events were deeply intertwined with religious conflicts. The Protestant Reformation's legacy continued, with debates raging between Anglicans, Puritans, Presbyterians, and various dissenting groups. Puritanism, with its emphasis on moral austerity, predestination, and a direct relationship with God, was a powerful force that significantly shaped the intellectual and literary landscape, particularly for writers like Milton.

The scientific revolution also gained momentum during this era, with figures like Francis Bacon, Galileo Galilei, and Isaac Newton making groundbreaking discoveries. This burgeoning rationalism, while sometimes at odds with religious dogma, also influenced literary thought, encouraging a more analytical approach to understanding the world.

John Milton: The Central Figure

John Milton (1608-1674) is the undisputed titan of this age. His life and work span the crucial political and religious transformations of the century. Educated at Cambridge and deeply influenced by classical learning and the Bible, Milton initially pursued poetry. However, the political turmoil drew him into public life, where he became a fervent defender of the Commonwealth and a prolific prose writer. He served as Secretary for Foreign Tongues under the Council of State, defending the Parliament's actions in Latin.

Milton's literary output can be broadly divided into his early poetry, his political and religious prose, and his later epic poems. His early works include pastoral elegies like "Lycidas" (1637), which mourns the death of his friend Edward King and also critiques the corrupt clergy. "Comus" (1634) is a masque exploring themes of virtue and temptation. However, his most monumental achievements came after he lost his sight in the 1650s.

His prose works are impassioned defenses of liberty, freedom of speech, and religious tolerance. Key among these are:

• Areopagitica (1644): A powerful argument against censorship and for freedom of the press.
• The Tenure of Kings and Magistrates (1649): Justified the execution of Charles I.
• A Defence of the English People (1651): A defense of regicide against attacks from abroad.

Milton's magnum opus, Paradise Lost (published in 1667, with revisions in 1674), is an epic poem that retells the biblical story of the Fall of Man. It is a work of immense scope, theological depth, and linguistic power, exploring themes of free will, obedience, divine justice, and the nature of good and evil. He followed this with Paradise Regained (1671), which depicts Christ's temptation in the wilderness, and Samson Agonistes (1671), a dramatic poem based on the biblical story of Samson.

Milton's style is characterized by its grandeur, complex sentence structures, Latinate vocabulary, and epic similes. He sought to create an English epic that could stand alongside those of Homer and Virgil. His exploration of complex theological and philosophical ideas, often through the dramatic portrayal of characters like Satan, has made his work a subject of endless debate and interpretation.

Other Major Writers of the Age

While Milton dominates, the Age of Milton was rich with other significant literary figures, often categorized into distinct groups.

The Metaphysical Poets

This group of poets, active in the early to mid-17th century, are known for their intellectual and often unconventional style. They employed "conceits"—elaborate and surprising metaphors that juxtapose seemingly disparate ideas—to explore themes of love, religion, and mortality. Their poetry is characterized by its wit, philosophical depth, and conversational tone.

Key Metaphysical Poets include:

• John Donne (1572-1631): Considered the leading figure. His early poems often explore sensual love with intellectual rigor, while his later works, particularly his Holy Sonnets and sermons, focus intensely on religious devotion and the fear of death. His famous line, "No man is an island, entire of itself," comes from his Devotions upon Emergent Occasions.
• George Herbert (1593-1633): Known for his devotional poetry, collected in The Temple. His poems are often structured in intricate patterns and explore the relationship between the soul and God with simple yet profound imagery.
• Andrew Marvell (1621-1678): Bridged the Metaphysical and Cavalier styles. His most famous poem, "To His Coy Mistress," is a brilliant example of the carpe diem theme, using witty arguments and striking imagery. He also wrote political poems and satires.
• Richard Crashaw (c. 1613-1649): Known for his intensely spiritual and often ecstatic religious poetry, particularly in Steps to the Temple.
• Henry Vaughan (1622-1695): Often called the "Silurist," he wrote poems deeply influenced by nature and spirituality, particularly in Silex Scintillans.

The Cavalier Poets

Associated with the court of Charles I, the Cavalier poets (sometimes called the "Sons of Ben," referring to Ben Jonson) favored themes of pleasure, love, loyalty to the crown, and a more lighthearted, classical approach to poetry. Their style is generally more polished, direct, and less intellectually complex than the Metaphysical poets.

Key Cavalier Poets include:

• Robert Herrick (1591-1674): Famous for his collections Hesperides and His Noble Numbers. His poems often celebrate classical themes, country life, and youthful beauty, with famous examples like "To the Virgins, to Make Much of Time" (a carpe diem poem) and "Corinna's Going A-Maying."
• Thomas Carew (c. 1595-1640): Known for his elegant lyrics on love and courtly life.
• Sir John Suckling (1609-1642): Celebrated for his witty and charming poems, such as "Why So Pale and Wan, Fond Lover?"

The Caroline Drama

The drama of the Caroline period (reign of Charles I, 1625-1649) continued the traditions of Jacobean drama but often leaned towards more elaborate spectacle, courtly themes, and a decline in the profound psychological depth seen in Shakespeare's later tragedies. With the rise of Puritanism, which viewed theatre as immoral, plays became more controversial. Theatres were eventually closed by Parliament in 1642, marking the end of this era of dramatic production.

Notable playwrights include:

• James Shirley (1596-1666): Often considered the last significant dramatist of the era before the Puritan closure of the theatres. His plays, like The Cardinal and The Gamester, are known for their polished verse and intricate plots.

Prose Writers and Political Tracts

The 17th century was a golden age for English prose, largely driven by the intense political and religious debates. The development of the pamphlet and the tract became crucial tools for disseminating ideas.

Besides Milton's monumental contributions, other significant prose writers include:

• Francis Bacon (1561-1626): Though his major works like The Advancement of Learning (1605) and Novum Organum (1620) predate the core "Age of Milton," his influence on scientific thought and empirical method was profound throughout the century. His essays, known for their aphoristic style, explored a wide range of subjects.
• Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679): His masterpiece, Leviathan (1651), written during the Civil War, presents a powerful argument for absolute sovereignty as the only means to prevent society from descending into chaos. It is a foundational text in political philosophy.
• Sir Thomas Browne (1605-1682): Author of Religio Medici (1642), a deeply personal and reflective work on faith and medicine, and Pseudodoxia Epidemica (1646), a study debunking common errors and superstitions. His prose is rich, ornate, and highly imaginative.
• Jeremy Taylor (1613-1667): A prominent Anglican divine and writer, known for his devotional works like Holy Living and Holy Dying, which offer guidance on Christian conduct and facing mortality.

Literary Characteristics of the Age

The literature of the Age of Milton is marked by several key characteristics that reflect the era's turbulence and intellectual currents.

• Religious and Political Engagement: Literature was rarely detached from the pressing issues of the day. Poetry, prose, and drama often served as vehicles for political argument, religious debate, and the expression of deeply held beliefs.
• Intellectualism and Wit: Especially evident in the Metaphysical poets, there was a strong emphasis on intellectual exploration, complex arguments, and the clever use of language and metaphor.
• Classical Influence: The study of classical Greek and Roman literature remained central. Writers emulated classical forms (epic, ode, tragedy) and drew upon classical mythology and philosophy, often reinterpreting them through a Christian framework.
• The Grand Style: Milton, in particular, aimed for a grand, elevated style suitable for epic poetry, characterized by complex syntax, Latinate vocabulary, and a serious, often somber, tone.
• Exploration of Individualism and Inner Life: Despite the public turmoil, there was also a growing interest in the individual's inner experience, particularly in religious poetry and prose, exploring themes of faith, doubt, sin, and redemption.
• Development of Prose: The century saw a significant maturation of English prose, moving towards greater clarity, precision, and flexibility, essential for philosophical, scientific, and political discourse.

Legacy of the Age of Milton

The Age of Milton left an indelible mark on English literature and thought. John Milton's epic poems, particularly Paradise Lost, became cornerstones of the English literary canon, influencing generations of poets. His advocacy for liberty of thought and expression in Areopagitica remains a foundational text for discussions on freedom of speech.

The Metaphysical poets revived interest in intellectual poetry and complex metaphor, influencing later movements like Modernism. The prose writers established new standards for philosophical and theological writing, shaping the future of English prose.

The intense engagement with political and religious themes set a precedent for literature as a form of social commentary and activism. The period's literature continues to be studied for its profound exploration of timeless human concerns—faith, freedom, morality, and the struggle between good and evil—all rendered in the rich and evolving language of 17th-century England.