Indian National Congress and Emergence of Leaders

Formation of the Indian National Congress

The Indian National Congress (INC) was founded in December 1885. It was a significant step towards organized political activity in British India. The formation of the INC was influenced by several factors, including the growing sense of nationalism among educated Indians, the administrative and economic policies of the British government which often led to discontent, and the desire for a platform where Indians could voice their grievances and aspirations.

The first session of the INC was held in Bombay (now Mumbai) from December 28 to 30, 1885. It was attended by 72 delegates from across India. The initial aim of the Congress was not to demand complete independence but to seek greater representation for Indians in the government, administrative reforms, and a larger share in the governance of the country. The early leaders of the INC were largely moderate in their approach and believed in constitutional methods to achieve their goals.

Key figures involved in the formation and early years of the INC included A.O. Hume, a retired British civil servant who played a crucial role in initiating the idea, and prominent Indian leaders like Dadabhai Naoroji, Dinshaw Wacha, W.C. Bonnerjee, and Surendranath Banerjea. W.C. Bonnerjee served as the first President of the INC. The early Congress sessions focused on passing resolutions on issues such as the separation of the judiciary from the executive, Indianization of government services, and reforms in the legislative councils.

Early Phase of the Indian National Movement (1885-1905): The Moderates

The first twenty years of the INC are often referred to as the 'Era of Moderates'. The leaders during this period, such as Dadabhai Naoroji, Gopal Krishna Gokhale, Pherozeshah Mehta, Surendranath Banerjea, and W.C. Bonnerjee, believed in the British sense of justice and fair play. They used methods like petitions, prayers, and protests (often termed the '3 Ps' - Petition, Prayer, and Protest) to put forth their demands.

The Moderates' main contributions include:

• Educating the Indian public about their political and economic rights.
• Creating a national consciousness and a sense of unity among diverse groups.
• Exposing the exploitative nature of British economic policies through detailed analysis, notably Dadabhai Naoroji's 'Drain Theory'.
• Advocating for administrative and legislative reforms to increase Indian participation in governance.

Dadabhai Naoroji, known as the 'Grand Old Man of India', was a prominent economist and politician. His 'Drain Theory' explained how British economic policies led to the transfer of wealth from India to Britain, impoverishing the Indian economy. Gopal Krishna Gokhale was another influential moderate leader, known for his eloquence and his commitment to social and political reform. He founded the Servants of India Society in 1905 to train national missionaries for the service of India.

Despite their efforts, the Moderates faced criticism for their slow and gradual approach. Many felt that their methods were not yielding significant results, and the British government often dismissed their demands. This dissatisfaction paved the way for a more assertive phase in the national movement.

Emergence of Nationalist Leaders and Extremism (1905-1919)

By the turn of the 20th century, a new generation of leaders emerged within the Congress who were impatient with the moderate approach. These leaders, often called 'Extremists' or 'Nationalists', included Lal Bal Pal (Lala Lajpat Rai, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, and Bipin Chandra Pal) and Aurobindo Ghose. They advocated for more radical methods and a stronger stance against British rule.

Several factors contributed to the rise of Extremism:

• The failure of the Moderates to achieve substantial gains.
• The oppressive policies of Lord Curzon, such as the Partition of Bengal in 1905, which greatly angered Indians.
• The influence of international events, like the defeat of Russia by Japan in 1905, which showed that European powers could be defeated.
• A growing sense of pride in India's own culture and heritage, partly inspired by the Hindu revivalist movement.

Bal Gangadhar Tilak, a scholar and journalist from Maharashtra, was a towering figure of this era. He famously declared, "Swaraj is my birthright, and I shall have it." Tilak used newspapers like 'Kesari' (Marathi) and 'Mahratta' (English) to mobilize public opinion and spread nationalist ideas. He organized festivals like Ganesh Chaturthi and Shivaji Jayanti to foster a sense of unity and pride among the masses.

Lala Lajpat Rai, known as the 'Lion of Punjab', was a prominent leader from Punjab. He was a strong advocate for Swadeshi (use of Indian goods) and boycott of British products. Bipin Chandra Pal, a Bengali leader, was also a fiery orator and a key proponent of Swaraj.

The Partition of Bengal in 1905, orchestrated by Lord Curzon, proved to be a major turning point. It was officially justified as an administrative measure, but Indians saw it as a deliberate attempt to divide and rule by separating the Bengali-speaking population. This led to widespread protests, including the Swadeshi and Boycott movements. The Swadeshi movement encouraged the use of Indian goods, promoted Indian industries, and emphasized national education. The boycott aimed at withdrawing cooperation with the British government.

The Surat Split (1907)

The growing ideological differences between the Moderates and the Extremists within the Congress came to a head at the Surat session in 1907. The Moderates wanted to proceed with constitutional methods and were hesitant about the radical demands of the Extremists, particularly regarding the election of a new Congress president. The Extremists, on the other hand, wanted a more assertive approach and supported Tilak for the presidency.

The session ended in a violent clash, with delegates throwing chairs and slippers at each other. This led to the formal split of the Congress into two factions: the Moderates and the Nationalists (Extremists). The split weakened the nationalist movement for a few years, as the Moderates lost popular support, and the Extremists were suppressed by the government.

The Era of Revolutionary Activities

Alongside the constitutional and mass movements, a section of the youth felt that even the Extremists' methods were not sufficient. They turned towards revolutionary violence to achieve freedom. This phase of revolutionary terrorism began around 1905-1907, particularly in Bengal, Maharashtra, and Punjab.

In Bengal, early revolutionary groups like the Anushilan Samiti and the Yugantar group were formed. They engaged in dacoities (robberies) to raise funds and assassinated British officials. Notable figures associated with this movement include Khudiram Bose, Prafulla Chaki, and later, Surya Sen.

In Maharashtra, the movement was influenced by figures like Vasudev Balwant Phadke and the Chapekar brothers, who assassinated two British officials in 1897. Bal Gangadhar Tilak's fiery speeches were seen as indirectly encouraging such actions, leading to his imprisonment.

These revolutionary activities, though sporadic and often met with severe repression, instilled fear in the British administration and demonstrated the depth of anti-British sentiment.

The Lucknow Pact (1916) and Home Rule Movement

The Congress reunited at the Lucknow session in 1916, largely due to the efforts of leaders like Annie Besant and Bal Gangadhar Tilak. The reunion was significant as it brought the Moderates and Extremists back together, strengthening the nationalist front.

The Lucknow Pact, signed between the INC and the All-India Muslim League in 1916, was another landmark event. The Pact recognized separate electorates for Muslims and demanded substantial reforms, including the establishment of self-government. This pact marked a period of cooperation between the Congress and the Muslim League.

Simultaneously, the Home Rule Movement gained momentum. Inspired by the Irish Home Rule movement, Annie Besant and Bal Gangadhar Tilak launched their respective Home Rule Leagues in 1916. The movement aimed to achieve self-government for India within the British Empire, using constitutional means. Annie Besant's league focused on Southern India, while Tilak's league operated in the rest of the country. The movement was successful in mobilizing people and raising political consciousness, especially during the First World War.

Gandhi's Arrival and the Era of Mass Politics (1915 onwards)

Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi returned to India from South Africa in January 1915. His unique philosophy of Satyagraha (truth force) and Ahimsa (non-violence) transformed the Indian freedom struggle into a mass movement. Gandhi's leadership marked a new phase, characterized by widespread participation of peasants, workers, women, and students.

Gandhi's early campaigns in India included:

• Champaran Satyagraha (1917): Against the indigo planters' oppressive system in Bihar.
• Kheda Satyagraha (1918): For the remission of land revenue for peasants in Gujarat due to crop failure.
• Ahmedabad Mill Strike (1918): Supported the textile mill workers' demand for better wages.

These early successes demonstrated the power of Gandhi's methods and earned him immense popularity and respect across the country. He became a unifying figure, bridging the gap between different communities and classes.

Emergence of Other Key Leaders in the Gandhian Era

While Gandhi became the undisputed leader, several other prominent figures emerged and played crucial roles in the freedom struggle:

• Jawaharlal Nehru: A close follower of Gandhi, Nehru was instrumental in shaping India's socialist ideals and later became the first Prime Minister of independent India. He played a key role in the Congress's push for complete independence (Purna Swaraj).
• Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel: A pragmatic leader, Patel was a key organizer of the Congress and played a vital role in the Bardoli Satyagraha (1928). He was instrumental in integrating the princely states into India after independence.
• Maulana Abul Kalam Azad: A scholar and statesman, Azad was a strong advocate for Hindu-Muslim unity and served as the President of the INC for several years.
• Subhas Chandra Bose: A charismatic leader, Bose had a more assertive approach and differed with Gandhi on certain strategies. He formed the Forward Bloc and led the Indian National Army (INA) during World War II, advocating for armed struggle.
• Mahatma Gandhi: The 'Father of the Nation', his philosophy of non-violent civil disobedience became the cornerstone of the freedom movement.
• Sarojini Naidu: Known as the 'Nightingale of India', she was a poet and a prominent leader in the independence movement, participating actively in the Salt Satyagraha and other campaigns.
• C. Rajagopalachari: A veteran leader and the only Indian Governor-General of independent India, he was a close associate of Gandhi.
• Bhagat Singh: A revolutionary socialist who believed in armed struggle and inspired many youth through his actions and ideals.

The emergence of these diverse leaders, with their varied ideologies and approaches, enriched the nationalist movement, making it a powerful force capable of challenging British rule.

The Non-Cooperation Movement (1920-1922)

The Non-Cooperation Movement was the first large-scale, nationwide mass movement launched by Mahatma Gandhi. It was a direct response to the injustices of the British government, particularly the Rowlatt Act (which allowed for detention without trial) and the Jallianwala Bagh massacre (1919), where British troops fired on unarmed civilians. The Khilafat issue, concerning the treatment of the Ottoman Caliphate by the British, also provided an opportunity for Hindu-Muslim unity.

The movement involved a boycott of British goods, courts, educational institutions, and government services. People surrendered titles and honors bestowed by the British. The boycott of foreign cloth and the promotion of Khadi became symbols of the movement.

The movement gained immense momentum, with millions participating across the country. However, it was abruptly called off by Gandhi in February 1922 following the Chauri Chaura incident, where a violent mob set fire to a police station, killing 22 policemen. Gandhi felt that the movement had deviated from the principle of non-violence.

The Civil Disobedience Movement (1930-1934)

The Civil Disobedience Movement, launched with the famous Dandi March (Salt Satyagraha) in March 1930, was another significant phase. Gandhi, along with his followers, marched from Sabarmati Ashram to Dandi on the Gujarat coast to break the British salt monopoly by making salt from seawater. This act symbolized defiance against unjust laws.

The movement spread across the country, with people participating in large numbers, defying salt laws, and engaging in other forms of civil disobedience, including boycotts and strikes. Leaders like Jawaharlal Nehru, Sardar Patel, and Sarojini Naidu were actively involved. The British government responded with severe repression, arresting thousands of protestors.

The movement saw widespread participation from women, who broke traditional barriers to join the protests. It significantly weakened the authority of the British government and highlighted the strength of organized, non-violent resistance.

The Quit India Movement (1942)

During the Second World War, the Indian National Congress demanded immediate independence, arguing that Britain should not fight for freedom elsewhere while denying it to India. In August 1942, the Congress launched the 'Quit India' Movement, with Gandhi giving the call "Do or Die."

The movement was characterized by spontaneous uprisings, strikes, and protests across the country. However, the British government responded with extreme brutality. Most of the prominent Congress leaders, including Gandhi, Nehru, and Patel, were arrested immediately. Despite the severe repression, the movement demonstrated the unwavering determination of the Indian people to achieve freedom.

The Quit India Movement was the last major mass struggle before India's independence. It put immense pressure on the British government, highlighting the unsustainability of their rule in the face of such widespread popular resistance.

Conclusion of the Era

The Indian National Congress, through its various phases and the emergence of dynamic leaders, successfully mobilized the Indian populace against British rule. From the moderate appeals for reform to the assertive demands of the nationalists and the mass civil disobedience campaigns led by Gandhi, each phase contributed to the eventual achievement of independence in 1947. The diverse leadership, encompassing intellectuals, revolutionaries, and mass leaders, ensured that the movement remained vibrant and resilient, ultimately paving the way for a free India.