Mughals - Babur to Aurangzeb, Sher Shah Suri, Administration, Society, Religion and Culture under the Mughals, Shivaji, Maratha Administration

Babur's Conquest of India

Babur, the founder of the Mughal Empire, was a descendant of Timur and Genghis Khan. He was born in Ferghana (modern-day Uzbekistan) in 1483. After losing his ancestral kingdom, he turned his ambitions towards India. His first major incursion into India was in 1519, where he captured parts of the Punjab. The real turning point came with the First Battle of Panipat in 1526.

First Battle of Panipat (1526)

This pivotal battle was fought between Babur and Ibrahim Lodi, the Sultan of Delhi. Ibrahim Lodi commanded a much larger army, estimated to be around 100,000 men and 1,000 elephants. Babur, on the other hand, had a smaller but more disciplined force of about 12,000 soldiers. Babur's success was attributed to his superior military tactics and technology.

• Artillery: Babur was one of the first Indian rulers to effectively use gunpowder and cannons in warfare. He employed mobile artillery units, which proved devastating against the Lodi army.
• Tulughma Tactic: This was a flanking maneuver where a part of the army circled around the enemy and attacked from the rear.
• Cartridge System (Araba): Babur used carts tied together with chains or ropes to create a defensive barrier, behind which his artillery could be placed and fired effectively.

The battle resulted in a decisive victory for Babur and the end of the Delhi Sultanate. Ibrahim Lodi was killed in the battle. Following this victory, Babur captured Delhi and Agra.

Babur's Subsequent Campaigns

After Panipat, Babur faced resistance from Rajput confederacies led by Rana Sanga of Mewar. The crucial battle was the Battle of Khanwa in 1527.

Battle of Khanwa (1527)

This battle was fought between Babur and a confederacy of Rajput chiefs, including Rana Sanga. The Rajputs fought bravely, but Babur's military genius once again prevailed. He used the same tactics of artillery and the Tulughma system that had won him the Battle of Panipat. This victory effectively crushed the Rajput power and consolidated Babur's control over northern India. Babur also fought the Battle of Ghagra in 1529 against the Afghan chiefs in Bihar, further strengthening his position.

Babur's Reign and Contributions

Babur ruled until his death in 1530. Despite his short reign in India, he laid the foundation of a vast empire. He was a scholar and a poet, and his autobiography, the "Baburnama," provides valuable insights into his life, campaigns, and the contemporary political and social conditions. He introduced new administrative and military techniques and patronized Persian and Turkish literature.

Humayun's Reign and Sher Shah Suri

Babur was succeeded by his son, Humayun, in 1530. Humayun's reign was marked by instability and challenges, primarily from the Afghan leader Sher Khan Suri (later Sher Shah Suri).

Sher Shah Suri (1540-1545)

Sher Shah Suri was a formidable Afghan chieftain who rose to power and challenged Humayun. He defeated Humayun in two significant battles:

• Battle of Chausa (1539): Sher Shah decisively defeated Humayun, forcing him to flee. After this victory, Sher Khan assumed the title of 'Sher Shah'.
• Battle of Kannauj (1540): This battle was even more decisive. Humayun was completely routed, losing his empire and forced into exile for 15 years. Sher Shah Suri then established the Sur dynasty, marking a brief interruption in Mughal rule.

Sher Shah Suri's Administration

Sher Shah Suri is renowned for his administrative reforms, which were later adopted by the Mughals. He was a brilliant administrator and a just ruler.

• Central Administration: He divided the empire into 'Sarkars' and then into 'Parganas'. The administration was organized into four main departments:
• Diwan-i-Wizarat (Revenue and Finance)
• Diwan-i-Ariz (Military)
• Diwan-i-Rasalat (Foreign Affairs and Appeals)
• Diwan-i-Insha (Royal Correspondence)
• Land Revenue System: Sher Shah introduced a systematic land revenue system based on the measurement of land. Land was classified into three categories: good, average, and bad. The state's share was fixed at one-third of the average produce, payable in cash or kind.
• Public Works: He undertook extensive public works, including the construction of roads and sarais (inns). The most famous road was the Grand Trunk Road (GT Road), stretching from Sonargaon in Bengal to Peshawar in the northwest. These sarais provided resting places for travelers and merchants and also served as post offices.
• Currency Reforms: He introduced a new silver coin called the 'Rupiya', which was of standard weight and purity. This greatly facilitated trade and commerce.
• Justice System: Sher Shah was known for his impartial justice. He ensured that justice was administered efficiently at all levels.
• Military Organization: He maintained a well-organized army and introduced the system of 'Dagh' (branding of horses) and 'Huliya' (description of soldiers) to prevent corruption.

Sher Shah Suri died in 1545. His empire, however, did not last long after his death, and Humayun managed to regain his throne in 1555.

Akbar's Reign (1556-1605)

Akbar, Humayun's son, ascended the throne in 1556. His reign is considered the golden age of the Mughal Empire. He was a brilliant military strategist, a shrewd politician, and a visionary administrator.

Second Battle of Panipat (1556)

Soon after Akbar ascended the throne, Hemu, a Hindu general and minister of the Sur dynasty, captured Delhi. Akbar's regent, Bairam Khan, led the Mughal forces and defeated Hemu in this decisive battle. This victory secured the Mughal throne for Akbar.

Akbar's Conquests and Expansion

Akbar systematically expanded the Mughal Empire through military campaigns and diplomatic alliances. Key conquests include:

• Malwa (1562)
• Chittor (1568)
• Gujarat (1573)
• Bengal (1576)
• Khandesh (1599-1601)
• Ahmednagar (partially conquered)

Akbar's Administrative Reforms

Akbar reorganized the empire's administration, making it more efficient and centralized.

• Mansabdari System: This was a unique system of civil and military administration. Mansabdars were officials appointed by the emperor who held a 'mansab' (rank). This rank indicated their position in the imperial hierarchy and their salary. The mansab had two components:
• Zat: Indicated the personal status of the official.
• Sawar: Indicated the number of cavalrymen the official had to maintain.

This system ensured a regular supply of troops and horses and brought discipline to the army.

• Central Government: Akbar organized the central government into several departments, each headed by a minister responsible to the emperor. Key ministers included:
  • Diwan-i-Ala (Prime Minister/Chief Diwan)
  • Mir Bakshi (Paymaster General/Military Head)
  • Mir Saman (Master of the Household/In charge of royal stores)
  • Qazi-ul-Quzzat (Chief Judge)
• Provincial Administration: The empire was divided into provinces called 'Subas'. Each Suba was headed by a 'Subedar' (governor) who was responsible for maintaining law and order and administering justice. Other officials in the Suba included the Diwan, Bakshi, and Qazi.
• Revenue System (Zabt System): Akbar refined the land revenue system. The 'Zabt' system, largely based on Sher Shah's reforms, involved the measurement of land and classification based on fertility. The state's share was fixed at one-third of the average produce. This system aimed for fairness and consistency in revenue collection.
• Imperial Policy of Sulh-i-Kul: This policy of 'Universal Peace' was central to Akbar's vision. It meant religious tolerance and amity among all communities in the empire. This helped in consolidating his rule and fostering a sense of unity.

Akbar's Religious Policy

Akbar pursued a policy of religious tolerance and understanding.

• He abolished the 'Jaziya' (tax on non-Muslims) and the pilgrimage tax.
• He patronized discussions on various religions in the 'Ibadat Khana' (House of Worship) at Fatehpur Sikri.
• He compiled his ideas on religious tolerance and governance in a new faith called 'Din-i-Ilahi' (Divine Faith), though it had very few followers and was more of an ethical code.
• He married Rajput princesses, respecting their religious customs.

Akbar's Cultural Contributions

Akbar was a great patron of art, architecture, literature, and music.

• Architecture: He built magnificent forts at Agra and Lahore, and his capital city, Fatehpur Sikri, is a masterpiece of Mughal architecture (Buland Darwaza, Panch Mahal, Jama Masjid).
• Painting: He established a large workshop for painting, and the Mughal school of painting flourished under his patronage. Notable painters like Abdus Samad and Daswant worked for him.
• Literature: He encouraged the translation of Sanskrit works into Persian, such as the 'Ramayana' and the 'Mahabharata' (translated as 'Razmnama'). The 'Ain-i-Akbari' and 'Akbarnama' by Abul Fazl are invaluable historical sources from his reign.

Jahangir (1605-1627) and Shah Jahan (1628-1658)

Akbar was succeeded by his son, Jahangir. His reign saw a continuation of Akbar's policies. He was known for his love of justice and his patronage of art. He also had significant interactions with European traders and envoys.

Jahangir's Reign

• Justice: He is famous for his 'Chain of Justice', a golden chain hung from the Jamuna river to his palace, allowing anyone to seek justice directly from him.
• Foreign Relations: He received envoys from England, including Sir Thomas Roe.
• Art and Culture: His reign saw the further development of Mughal painting, especially portraiture.
• Rebellions: He faced rebellions, notably from his son Khusrau.

Shah Jahan's Reign

Shah Jahan, known for his architectural achievements, ascended the throne after a period of conflict. His reign is often referred to as the 'Golden Age of Mughal Architecture'.

• Architecture: His most famous works include the Taj Mahal at Agra, the Red Fort in Delhi, Jama Masjid in Delhi, and Shalimar Gardens in Lahore.
• Administration: He continued the Mansabdari system and maintained a strong central administration.
• Wars: He engaged in wars in Central Asia and faced rebellions in the Deccan.
• Economic Prosperity: His reign was marked by relative economic prosperity, though also by high taxation to fund his ambitious building projects.

Aurangzeb's Reign (1658-1707)

Aurangzeb was the last of the great Mughal emperors. His reign was characterized by military expansion, religious conservatism, and a decline in the empire's stability.

Aurangzeb's Conquests and Administration

• Expansion: He significantly expanded the empire, bringing the Deccan under direct Mughal rule. He waged long and costly wars in the Deccan against the Marathas and the Sultanates of Bijapur and Golconda.
• Administration: He was a meticulous administrator and tried to enforce Islamic law strictly. He reintroduced the 'Jaziya' tax on non-Muslims in 1679 and banned music and dancing in the royal court.
• Religious Policy: Unlike Akbar, Aurangzeb was not tolerant of other religions. His policies alienated many Hindus and contributed to the rise of resistance movements.
• Rebellions: His reign saw widespread rebellions, including those by the Sikhs (under Guru Tegh Bahadur and Guru Gobind Singh), the Jats, and the Marathas.

Aurangzeb and the Marathas

Aurangzeb's prolonged campaigns in the Deccan were largely aimed at crushing the Maratha power, which had been growing under Shivaji. However, these campaigns proved to be a drain on the Mughal treasury and manpower, weakening the empire.

Decline of the Mughal Empire

Aurangzeb's death in 1707 marked the beginning of the decline of the Mughal Empire. His successors were weak, and the empire was plagued by internal strife, economic problems, and external invasions (like that of Nadir Shah in 1739).

Shivaji and Maratha Administration

Shivaji Bhosle (1630-1680) was the founder of the Maratha Empire, which emerged as a formidable power in the Deccan, challenging the might of the Mughals.

Shivaji's Early Life and Rise to Power

Born in 1630, Shivaji inherited the jagir of Poona from his father, Shahji Bhonsle. He was inspired by the ideals of independence and self-rule. He began by conquering forts from the Adil Shahi rulers of Bijapur.

• Capture of Torna Fort (1646): This was his first significant military success, marking the beginning of his independent career.
• Conquest of Javli (1656): This brought him control over the strategic Maval region.
• Conflict with the Mughals: Shivaji first clashed with the Mughals during Aurangzeb's viceroyalty in the Deccan. He defeated Mughal forces sent against him.
• Afzal Khan's Defeat (1659): The Sultan of Bijapur sent Afzal Khan to capture Shivaji. Shivaji famously defeated and killed Afzal Khan in a personal encounter, a feat that greatly enhanced his prestige.
• Battle of Salher (1672): This was a major victory for the Marathas against the Mughals, solidifying their strength.
• Coronation (1674): Shivaji was crowned 'Chhatrapati' (Sovereign) at Raigad, formally establishing the Maratha kingdom as an independent state.

Maratha Administration under Shivaji

Shivaji established a well-organized administrative system based on efficiency and justice.

• Ashta Pradhan Council: He organized his government into a council of eight ministers, known as the 'Ashta Pradhan'. Each minister was responsible for a specific department and was directly accountable to Shivaji. The key ministers were:
• Peshwa (Mukhya Pradhan): Prime Minister, responsible for general administration and finance.
• Amatya (Majumdar): Auditor and accountant, responsible for state accounts.
• Acharya (Panditrao): High priest, responsible for religious matters and charity.
• Sachiv (Surunavis): Secretary, responsible for royal correspondence and keeping records.
• Sumant (Dabir): Foreign minister, responsible for external affairs and diplomacy.
• Senapati (Sarlashkar): Commander-in-chief, responsible for military affairs.
• Mantri (Chitnis): Chronicler, responsible for maintaining court chronicles and intelligence.
• Nyayadhish: Chief justice, responsible for dispensing justice.
• Revenue System: Shivaji reformed the land revenue system. He abolished the intermediaries (like Jagirdars) and collected revenue directly from the peasants. He measured land and fixed the state's share at 30% of the produce (initially it was 40% during crises, but later standardized to 30%). He also collected two additional taxes:
• Chauth: One-fourth of the revenue collected from territories under Maratha influence or bordering Mughal territories, as protection money against raids.
• Sardeshmukhi: An additional 10% tax collected from the area where he was recognized as the 'Sardeshmukh' (chief headman).
• Military Organization: Shivaji maintained a disciplined and well-equipped army.
• He had a standing army consisting of infantry, cavalry, and artillery.
• He emphasized the importance of forts for defense. He built and repaired numerous forts along the coast and in the hills.
• Cavalry was his main strength.
• Justice: Justice was dispensed through the village panchayats and the higher courts headed by the Nyayadhish.

Shivaji's Legacy

Shivaji laid the foundation of a strong Maratha kingdom and challenged the overwhelming power of the Mughals. His administrative reforms, military prowess, and ideals of Swaraj (self-rule) inspired the Maratha people and contributed to the eventual decline of the Mughal Empire.

Society, Religion, and Culture under the Mughals

The Mughal period (roughly 1526-1707) was a time of significant developments in Indian society, religion, and culture. The empire fostered a cosmopolitan environment, leading to a rich synthesis of Persian, Turkic, and Indian traditions.

Social Structure

• Hierarchy: Mughal society was hierarchical, with the emperor at the apex, followed by the nobility (Mansabdars), officials, merchants, artisans, peasants, and laborers.
• Nobility: The Mughal nobility was diverse, comprising people of various ethnic and religious backgrounds, including Turanis, Iranis, Afghans, and Indian Muslims and Rajputs.
• Peasantry: The vast majority of the population consisted of peasants, who were the primary producers. Their lives were largely tied to the land and agricultural cycles.
• Status of Women: The status of women varied. While upper-class women enjoyed some education and cultural pursuits, women in general had limited rights and freedoms. Practices like 'Purdah' (veiling) and 'Sati' (widow immolation) were prevalent, though Akbar attempted to discourage Sati.
• Urban Centers: Cities like Delhi, Agra, Lahore, and Fatehpur Sikri grew as centers of administration, trade, and culture.

Religion

• Religious Diversity: India was a land of diverse religious beliefs. The Mughal rulers, especially Akbar, promoted religious tolerance.
• Sufism and Bhakti Movement: These popular devotional movements continued to influence religious life. Sufi saints played a crucial role in spreading Islam, while the Bhakti movement emphasized monotheism, love, and social equality, contributing to a syncretic culture.
• Sikhism: The Sikh faith, founded by Guru Nanak, gained prominence during this period, with its own distinct religious and social practices.
• Akbar's Ibadat Khana: Akbar's attempts to foster inter-religious dialogue in the Ibadat Khana reflected his intellectual curiosity and his policy of Sulh-i-Kul.

Culture and Art

The Mughal era witnessed a flourishing of arts, literature, architecture, and music, characterized by a blend of Persian, Indian, and European influences.

• Architecture: Mughal architecture is renowned for its grandeur, symmetry, and use of materials like marble and sandstone. Key examples include the Taj Mahal, Agra Fort, Fatehpur Sikri, Humayun's Tomb, and Jama Masjid.
• Painting: The Mughal school of painting, established by Akbar, reached its zenith. It was characterized by miniature paintings, detailed portraits, vibrant colors, and themes from court life, historical events, and nature. Jahangir was a great patron of painting.
• Literature: Persian was the court language, and significant literary works were produced. Abul Fazl's 'Ain-i-Akbari' and 'Akbarnama', and the 'Baburnama' (translated into Persian) are prime examples. Regional languages also developed, with literature in Hindi, Bengali, and other vernaculars growing.
• Music and Dance: Mughal courts patronized classical Indian music and dance forms, although Aurangzeb later banned music.
• Gardens: The Mughals were great lovers of gardens, creating beautiful formal gardens like the Shalimar Bagh in Lahore and the Taj Mahal gardens.